GIFT  OF 


SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


BY 

WALTER    H.    PARKER 

k 

A.  A.  I.  A. 


SAN  FRANCISCO 

WHITAKER    &   RAY-WIGGIN   CO. 
1912 


\ 


COPYRIGHT  BY 
WHITAKER  &  RAY-WIGGIN  CO. 

1912 


PREFACE 

The  purpose  of  this  publication  is  to  familiarize 
those  interested,  architects,  schoolboards,  instructors 
and  students,  of  the  requirements  and  the  solution  of 
such  requirements,  in  the  successful  planning  of  school 
buildings.  There  is  no  claim  to  originality  in  any  part 
of  the  work,  there  being  at  the  present  time  many  able 
authorities  on  school  buildings  in  this  country  and  in 
others,  all  of  whom  agree  upon  various  theories  and 
the  practical  application  of  such,  to  the  extent  that 
certain  practice  has  been  arrived  at,  the  derivation  of 
which  may  be  readily  retraced  by  any  thinking  in- 
dividual familiar  with  the  subject  and  having  at  his 
disposal  all  of  the  works  upon  the  subject. 

Where  statements  are  made  herein,  they  are  based 
upon  the  composite  standards  of  practice  as  advocated 
by  the  various  authorities.  The  book  is  namely  a 
memoranda  reference  book,  for  those  interested,  and 
as  such,  contains  information  readily  found  in  brief, 
eliminating  miscellaneous  detail. 


298850 


INTRODUCTORY 

There  is  no  division  of  public  or  semi-public  build- 
ings that  has  received  more  theoretical  study  and  the 
practical  application  of  such  study  than  the  public 
school,  especially  in  the  larger  cities.  In  less  popu- 
lated districts  and  in  small  towns,  various  makeshifts 
are  frequently  spoken  of  as  educational  edifices,  the 
failure  to  build  something  creditable  being  attributed 
to  the  architect's  neglect  to  insist  upon  what  he  be- 
lieves to  be  the  correct  solution  of  the  problem,  and 
partly  to  his  seeming  inability  to  overcome  certain 
unfavorable  local  conditions  entirely  out  of  his  realm 
of  influence.  However,  in  the  more  thoughtful  com- 
munities, new  educational  buildings  are  now  approach- 
ing a  higher  degree  of  efficiency,  due  to  the  advance- 
ment of  ideas  of  the  architects  themselves,  and  to  the 
growing  interest  that  the  public  in  general  is  taking  in 
municipal  and  civic  improvement.  Too  much  thought 
upon  the  principles  of  planning  good  construction  and 
environment  cannot  be  spent  upon  buildings  whose 
occupants  are  unconsciously  absorbing  everything 
about  them. 

The  building  itself  should  be  so  designed  that  it 
will  be  safe,  comfortable  and  convenient  for  its  oc- 
cupants, and  arranged  so  that  it  may  be  economically 
administered  and  kept  clean.  It  should  be  as  near 
fire-proof  as  possible. 


FRAME  BUILDINGS 

Little  may  be  said  concerning  frame  buildings,  as 
their  use  is  rapidly  being  dispensed  with,  except  in  the 
scattered  districts,  or  where  suitable  materials  are  too 
expensive  to  use. 

It  may  seem  useless  to  devise  extensive  fire  pro- 
tection for  such  buildings,  but  burnable  as  they  may 
be,  it  is  possible  to  design  them  in  such  a  manner  that 
they  may  be  emptied  in  a  very  short  time  by  suitable 
corridors  and  the  proper  number  and  location  of  stair- 
ways. Fire-escapes  are,  theoretically,  of  valuable  as- 
sistance, and  in  some  States  are  required  by  the  law, 
but  their  inefficiency  may  be  readily  demonstrated  by 
the  excavation  of  the  building  under  normal  condi- 
tions, let  alone  a  similar  performance  when  excitement, 
fire  or  smoke  or  other  unusual  elements  prevail. 

Every  two-story  building  containing  more  than  six 
rooms  should  have,  irrespective  of  fire-escape,  two  well 
lighted  stairways,  located  at  each  end  of  the  building 
if  possible,  and  opening  at  grade  entrance,  in  addition 
to  light  and  ample  corridor  space. 

FIRE-PROOF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 

A  fire-proof  building  is  one  composed  and  built  up 
of  entirely  fire-proof  materials  throughout,  including 
every  material  used  in  its  construction  or  decoration. 
There  are  very  few  fire-proof  school  buildings,  strictly 
speaking,  but  there  are  many  whose  fire  risk  is  reduced 


3  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

-to  a  minimum  and  which  for  all  practical  purposes 
furnish  adequate  protection  to  its  inmates,  and  which 
may  be  called  fire-proof. 

From  fire-proof  to  combustible,  buildings  may  be 
constructed  at  all  different  stages  and  degrees  of  effi- 
cient fire-proofing.  For  school  purposes  and  the  eco- 
nomical disposition  of  municipal  funds  for  the  purpose 
of  fire  and  panic  protection,  school  buildings  need  be 
of  fire-proof  construction  only  to  the  extent  that  the 
inmates  of  the  building  are  protected  until  they  may 
have  had  reasonable  time  to  leave  the  building,  and 
sufficient  to  guarantee  a  depreciation  in  damage  to 
property  of  not  more  than  10  per  cent  (in  the  event  of 
outside  protection  being  available).  The  above  pro- 
tection will  be  found  sufficient;  in  fact,  ample  for  all 
practical  needs.  In  other  words,  a  building  whose  pro- 
tected frame  work  is  concrete  or  steel,  with  brick, 
terra  cotta  or  concrete  walls,  floors  and  roof  terra  cotta, 
concrete  or  metal  lath  and  plaster  curtain  and  partition 
walls,-  metal  or  concrete  stairs  of  ample  width  and 
number,  will  be  sufficient  to  meet  the  above  require- 
ments. Add  to  this  metal  or  metal  covered  trim 
throughout,  metal  furniture,  etc.,  and  the  entire  build- 
ing would  be  fire-proof  throughout,  not  only  from  with- 
in, but  from  without. 

All  school  buildings  should  be  built  with  fire-proof 
walls,  and  all  corridors  and  stairs  should  be  of  fire- 
proof construction.  This  would  insure  a  reasonable 
protection  against  injury  to  inmates  from  fire  and 
panic,  and  with  the  other  customary  fire  protecting  ap- 
paratus usually  provided  for  should  be  sufficient 


SCHOOL.    BUILDINGS  9 

to  protect  the  building,  in  all  probability,  against 
great  damage.  This  type  of  building  or  modifi- 
cation of  it,  is  certainly  good  and  safe  enough 
for  the  average  community.  Some  of  the  new 
school  buildings  recently  erected  in  San  Francisco 
are  similar  to  the  above  type,  and  others  go  one  step 
better  in  that  the  entire  first  floor,  including  the  ceil- 
ing (which  is  also  the  second  floor)  is  made  of  fire- 
proof materials  and  in  all  cases  the  partitions  are 
protected  with  metal  lath  and  the  customary  plaster, 
in  preference  to  the  wood.  There  is  no  particular 
objection  to  a  wood  floor  for  school  buildings,  as  there 
is  little  danger  of  fire  reaching  it  from  floor  or  ceiling, 
and  it  will  not  readily  burn  of  itself.  However,  in  a 
building  with  wood  floors,  the  ceiling  and  walls  of  the 
heater  room  should  be  fire-proofed,  or  better  yet,  the 
heating  apparatus  removed  to  a  separate  building. 

There  is  a  common  belief  among  some  that  a  con- 
crete building  is  fire-proof,  and  it  is  as  far  as  the 
concrete  goes,  which  is  usually  the  shell  only,  the 
partitions,  roof,  trim,  etc.,  being  of  wood,  and,  of 
course,  subject  to  attack  from  without  as  well  as  from 
within  by  fire,  as  in  any  other  so-called  ''fire-proof" 
building.  A  concrete  building  is  no  more  fire-proof 
than  a  brick  one  of  the  same  construction.  Concrete, 
however,  is  one  of  our  most  accessible  and  most  dur- 
able building  materials  and  is  being  used  plain  or 
reinforced,  as  the  case  may  be,  to  a  great  extent  in  the 
construction  of  school  buildings. 

The  following  classification  may  be  of  interest,  as 
it  embodies  every  kind  of  a  school  structure  in  degrees, 


10 


SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 


from  the  commonest  frame  building  up  to  the  abso- 
lutely fire-proof  building. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  BUILDING 


I  I 

93 

1 


*     I 

•s  I 


£.3 


SCHOOL    BUILDINGS  11 

COST  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 

The  cost  of  school  buildings,  or  any  kind  of  build- 
ing is  dependable  upon  local  conditions,  including 
the  cost  of  both  labor  and  material,  which  will  be  dif- 
ferent for  each  locality.  No  classification  or  cost  basis 
is  of  great  value,  and  it  is  usually  found  that  a  fire- 
proof building  or  one  semi-fire-proof,  will  cost'  more 
than  one  that  is  not,  although  the  contrary  can  be  cited 
in  a  few  cases,  due  to  the  exceptionally  low  markets 
of  some  kinds  of  material. 

Buildings  are  erected  at  a  less  cost  in  the  East 
than  in  the  West,  being  nearer  the  centers  of  available 
material  and  cheaper  labor;  and  costs  per  pupil,  costs 
per  class  room  or  cubic  contents  of  a  standard  type 
of  building  will  compare  there  very  satisfactorily. 
However,  on  the  Pacific  Slope,  and  in  the  smaller 
cities,  buildings  under  class  "C"  (see  page  10)  will 
rarely  be  completed  under  a  cost  of  \2y2  cents  per 
cubic  foot,  and  those  under  class  "B"  and  "A"  still 
more  per  cubic  foot. 

In  estimating  the  cost  upon  a  cubic  foot  basis,  the 
total  cubic  contents  are  taken  from  the  grade  up  to 
total  height  of  building  if  same  has  a  flat  roof,  or  from 
grade  up  to  one-half  the  pitch  if  the  roof  be  other  than 
flat.  Figuring  on  a  cubic  foot  basis  is  only  approxi- 
mate, but  such  computation  is  useful  on  account  of  its 
simplicity  and  will  often  save  much  time  by  confining 
the  designer  to  conservative  limits  if  his  unit  cubic 
foot  cost  price  is  reasonably  correct. 

A  better  way  to  arrive  at  the  cost  of  proposed 


12  SCHOOL,    BUILDINGS 

school  building  is  to  segregate  each  trade  called  for  in 
its  construction,  and  estimate  them  separately,  the 
total,  plus  contractor's  profit,  being  a  fair  estimate  of 
its  ultimate  cost. 

ARCHITECTS 

In  the  largest  cities  of  the  United  States,  the  de- 
signing and  superintending  of  construction  of  school 
buildings  is  done  by  the  municipality  or  special  de- 
partments, under  the  control  of  the  so-called  "School 
Authorities"  of  the  present  time,  Wheelwright  of  Bos- 
ton, Snyder  of  New  York,  Ittner  of  St.  Louis,  Perkins 
of  Chicago,  etc. 

These  men  have,  at  some  time,  been  at  the  head 
of  one  or  more  of  the  various  departments  which  go  to 
complete  any  building;  the  designing,  planning  and 
superindendence  of  the  building  itself,  as  well  as  its 
mechanical,  heating  and  ventilating  systems,  which 
require  competent  engineers  and  subordinates. 

Other  large  cities  and  all  of  the  smaller  ones,  on 
down  to  the  vallages  and  towns,  employ  architects  to 
do  their  work  for  them,  either  entire  or  in  part,  to  the 
extent  that  in  almost  every  large  locality  there  can 
be  found  architects  who  are  fitted  for  this  kind  of 
work,  schooled  by  extensive  study  of  the  best  ex- 
amples of  school  structures  throughout  the  country, 
and  of  the  theories  and  practice  involved  in  modern 
planning,  along  with  such  personal  experience  they 
may  have  had  with  their  own  work.  Any  architect 
of  ability  and  experience  can  design  and  superintend 


SCHOOL,    BUILDINGS  13 

the  construction  of  a  modern  school  building,  it  is 
true,  the  result  depending  upon  his  familiarity  with 
the  subject,  and  his  ability  and  skill  in  handling  it. 
It  is  well,  however,  that  he  may  have  the  aforesaid 
qualities  before  undertaking  any  large  permanent  im- 
provement. 

BUILDING  SITE 

The  conditions  affecting  the  site  of  a  school  build- 
ing are  variable,  depending  principally  upon  the  size 
of  the  city  or  town,  its  relation  to  land  values.  Smaller 
centers  of  population  are  more  fortunate  in  this  re- 
spect as  it  frequently  happens  that  from  half  to  an 
entire  block  may  be  obtained  for  educational  edifices, 
while  in  New  York  school  buildings  are  built  of  some 
height,  with  play  grounds  on  the  roof,  for  economic 
reasons,  however,  and  not  by  choice. 

It  is  highly  desirable  to  locate  a  school  building 
on  as  large  a  lot  as  possible,  as  an  abundance  of  light 
and  air  has  great  influence  upon  the  health  and  dis- 
position of  the  pupils.  The  site  should  be  remote  as 
far  as  possible  from  congested  railroad  centers,  dan- 
gerous crossings,  factories,  and  other  distracting  in- 
fluences. Play  grounds  will  be  required  for  both 
sexes ;  there  seems  to  be  no  limit  to  their  size,  also  no 
definite  rules  for  a  minimum  and  maximum.  If  some 
space  in  front  of  the  building  may  be  spared  for  grass 
plots,  trees,  parking,  etc.,  so  much  the  better,  as  the 
charm  of  any  edifice  is  increased  or  diminished  by  its 
surroundings.  Public  school  buildings,  especially  those 


14  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

provided  with  assembly  halls,  are  rapidly  becoming 
the  centers  of  the  social  intercourse,  due  to  the  ad- 
vancing ideas  of  the  American  people,  and  as  such,  are 
entitled  to  the  most  conspicuous  location  available  for 
such  purposes. 

EXPOSURES 

No  universal  definite  rules  for  exposures  to  class 
rooms  have  been  found,  for  in  some  localities  condi- 
tions may  reverse  otherwise  desirable  solutions  to  the 
problem  of  exposure  for  class  rooms.  In  some  locali- 
ties where  the  sun  is  very  intense,  north  and  east  light 
have  been  used  whenever  possible,  eliminating  sunlight 
entirely,  and  with  very  desirable  results. 

Whatever  preference  is  given  for  exposure,  it  may 
be  said  that  it  is  generally  impracticable  to  have  each 
and  every  class  room  with  the  same  exposure,  al- 
though schools  have  been  built  upon  that  basis. 

The  best  results  will  usually  be  found  by  placing 
the  building  so  as  not  to  coincide  with  the  points  of 
the  compass;  otherwise  a  room  on  the  north  side,  if 
lighted  from  that  direction  only,  is  entirely  cut  off 
from  the  sun,  while  the  rooms  with  a  south  exposure 
may  receive  so  much  sunlight  as  to  be  uncomfortable 
in  warm  weather.  By  the  above  arrangement,  east 
rooms  will  get  some  sunlight  during  the  day,  and  a 
frontage  which  will  make  the  southeast  rooms  the 
most  desirable,  the  northeast  and  the  northwest  next, 
and  the  southwest  possibly  the  least  desirable  of  all. 
These  distinctions  should  not  be  carried  to  extremes, 


SCHOOL    BUILDINGS  15 

however,  but  in  choosing  a  site  they  may  be  kept  in 
mind. 

If  the  lot  has  already  been  provided,  school  author- 
ities should  give  their  architect  their  preference  as  to 
the  exposures  with  reference  to  class  rooms,  and 
should  be  satisfied  if  he  follows  their  desires  to  a  rea- 
sonable extent,  as  he  has  many  things  to  keep  in  mind 
of  equal  importance  in  the  solution  of  the  entire  prob- 
lem. 

PLANNING 

In  most  buildings  the  controlling  elements  are 
those  relating  to  planning,  equipment  and  construction ; 
the  principal  parts  being  in  this  particular  case  the 
class  rooms  themselves  and  communications,  with  as 
many  secondary  rooms  of  such  size  as  to  accommodate 
the  purpose  for  which  they  are  intended.  In  planning, 
the  exterior  need  not  be  seriously  considered  (except 
unconsciously,  as  it  invariably  is  when  handled  by 
those  fortunate  enough  to  see  in  elevation  and  feel  in 
plan),  but  in  order  that  the  finished  building  may 
harmonize  with  the  surroundings,  and  before  actual 
working  drawings  have  been  started,  some  study 
should  be  made  of  the  grades,  exposures,  approaches, 
even  sky  line,  in  some  cases,  and  other  physical  con- 
ditions that  may  make  or  disfigure  architecturally,  an 
otherwise  correctly  appointed  building.  It  is  well  to 
recognize  the  fact  that  good  proportions  and  lines  of 
any  building  do  not  depend  upon  its  cost,  and  the  re- 
sult, if  well  studied,  can  be  harmonious  to  the  sur- 


16  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

roundings,  and  consistent  with  the  materials  avail- 
able; in  other  words,  an  attractive  building  need  not 
necessarily  be  an  expensive  one. 

So-called  one-story  buildings  are  becoming  very 
popular,  especially  in  buildings  of  not  more  than  six- 
teen (16)  rooms,  and  quadrangle  effects  are  much 
sought  after.  Such  an  arrangement  has  many  ad- 
vantages, especially  in  mild  climates,  but  will  not  be 
found  as  economical  in  construction,  or  as  convenient 
of  communication  as  buildings  more  compact. 

A  compact  plan  is  one  without  waste  space.  If  a 
ten  (10)  foot  corridor  is  wide  enough  for  the  purpose 
for  which  it  is  intended,  one  twelve  (12)  feet  wide  is 
waste.  If  class  rooms  open  from  one  side  only  of  a 
corridor,  where  the  corridor  is  of  sufficient  width  to 
accommodate  class  rooms  on  both  sides  and  still  be 
properly  lighted,  such  an  arrangement  is  not  economi- 
cal. 

The  size  and  value  of  the  property  will  usually 
determine  the  type  of  building  best  suited.  An  im- 
portant item  is  the  possibility  or  probability  of  addi- 
tions which  must  be  made  at  some  later  date  without 
materially  interfering  with  the  arrangements  of  a  good 
plan,  or  disfiguring  a  pleasing  exterior,  either  present 
or  future.  Often  a  little  more  earnest  study  on  the 
plan  with  this  in  view,  will  vastly  simplify  conflicting 
elements  otherwise  manifesting  themselves  in  con- 
crete form  in  the  future. 

In  arranging  the  plan,  the  size  of  the  lot  is  to  be 
kept  in  mind,  the  proposed  cost  of  building,  number 
of  floors,  kind  of  construction  and  the  requisite  areas 


SCHOOL,    BUILDINGS  17 

of  all  the  various  departments  to  be  incorporated  there- 
in, which  are  to  be  arranged  conveniently  and  econom- 
ically. 


ASSEMBLY  HALLS 

Not  all  grammar  schools  require  these,  although 
they  serve  varied  functions,  being  usually  planned  to 
accommodate  more  than  the  maximum  number  of  en- 
rolled pupils,  and  are  often  in  demand  for  meetings 
or  entertainments  outside  of  the  regular  school  pro- 
gram. It  should  be  well  determined  if  the  proposed 
new  building  should  have  an  assembly  hall,  as  its 
cost  is  considerable  both  in  erection  and  maintenance. 
The  amount  of  regular  use  and  funds  available  should 
determine  whether  it  is  advisable. 

If  the  assembly  hall  is  to  be  included  in  the  plan, 
the  entire  scheme  will  be  materially  affected  by  its 
location.  In  the  large  schools  such  a  room  is  invar- 
iably required ;  in  fact,  any  school  containing  more 
than  eight  rooms  may  be  considered  as  requiring  one. 
It  is  located  preferably  on  the  first  floor — not  for  eco- 
nomic reasons,  however,  but  for  the  fact  that  it  can 
be  more  readily  reached  without  climbing  stairs,  and 
the  exits  to  the  grades  may  be  more  effectively  placed. 
The  additional  height  of  this  room,  its  large  size,  the 
problerns  of  heating,  ventilating  and  lighting,  the  long 
unsupported  spans  over  ceiling,  cost,  etc.,  have  great 
influence  upon  its  location  with  respect  to  other  parts 
of  the  building. 


18  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

Assembly  halls  are  used  in  two  different  ways : 

1st.  For  the  school  proper;  of  sufficient  size  to 
seat,  approximately,  all  of  the  occupants  of 
the  building  at  one  time. 

2nd.  For  the  use  of  the  public  and  the  school  to- 
gether, and  of  a  size  much  greater  than  the 
one  first  mentioned,  having  correspondingly 
greater  stage  capacity. 

Either  class  may  have  fixed  seats,  but  opera  chairs 
or  seats  (other  than  class  room  desks  and  seats)  will 
be  required  for  auditorium  in  class  2nd. 

ASSEMBLY  HALLS— LOCATION 

In  many  of  the  more  recent  schools  the  auditorium 
is  placed  on  the  ground  floor  between  two  wings,  or 
the  central  part  of  an  E-shaped  building  and  of  such 
size  as  to  accommodate  all  of  the  pupils  at  one  sit- 
ting. In  any  case  it  should  be  located  with  careful 
respect  to  its  ultimate  use ;  in  other  words,  if  used 
for  public  purposes,  a  more  convenient  level  would 
not  be  found  than  on  the  ground,  or  possibly  first 
floor.  If  the  building  had  three  or  more  floors  and 
the  assembly  hall  was  of  a  size  only  to  include  the 
occupants  of  the  school,  it  might  be  more  logically 
placed  on  the  second  floor,  where  it  would  be  nearer 
the  center  of  communication  from  all  floors. 

One  advantage  of  locating  the  Assembly  Hall  near 
the  ground,  is  the  adequate  facilities  that  may  be  ob- 
tained for  exit  purposes,  as  the  higher  up  it  is  placed 
greater  and  correspondingly  less  efficient  means  of  fire 
escapes  and  exits  will  be  required. 


SCHOOL    BUILDINGS  19 

ASSEMBLY  HALLS— STAGE 

A  stage  or  platform  of  sufficient  area  to  accommo- 
date two  classes  will  be  of  the  average  size,  and  should 
be  elevated  two  feet  or  more,  depending  upon  the 
depth  of  the  Assembly  Hall.  Ante-rooms  adjacent  are 
desirable  on  the  same  floor  level,  if  possible,  as  that  of 
the  stage. 

ASSEMBLY   HALL— LIGHTING 

The  assembly  hall  should  have  natural  light  from 
one  or  both  sides  in  addition  to  any  overhead  light- 
ing, but  there  should  be  no  windows  facing  either 
audience  or  speakers,  especially  the  former. 

The  windows  for  an  assembly  hall  need  not  be  so 
liberal  in  proportion  to  floor  area  as  required  by  a 
class  room,  and  some  skylight  lighting  is  not  object- 
ionable; in  fact,  the  customary  rules  for  class  room 
lighting  may  be  ignored  in  this  respect. 

The  height  of  windows  above  the  floor  is  usually 
greater  than  that  in  class  rooms,  and  the  grouping 
may  be  obtained  in  various  efficient  ways,  cross  light- 
ing being  desirable. 

When  not  feasible  to  arrange  the  auditorium  so 
that  light  may  be  obtained  from  both  sides,  skylights 
may  be  introduced,  but  the  latter  should  not  be  relied 
upon  entirely,  as  outside  light  of  some  kind  is  im- 
perative. 

ASSEMBLY  HALLS— EXITS 

Exits  to  grades  should  be  located  independent  of 


20  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

those  opening  into  corridors,  so  that  the  room  may 
be  emptied  in  a  reasonable  length  of  time.  When  the 
room  is  located  close  to  the  ground  this  may  be  ac- 
complished very  readily  by  placing  at  the  exits  double 
glazed  doors  around  the  room  at  various  intervals,  in 
addition  to  those  opening  into  the  corridors.  Exit 
doors  are  fitted  with  automatic  door  openers  which 
operate  by  means  of  pressure  against  them.  In  all 
cases  they  should  open  out. 

ASSEMBLY  HALLS— SEATING 

For  the  approximate  number  of  seats  that  may  be 
placed  in  an  assembly  hall,  6y2  square  feet  of  floor 
area  per  sitting  may  be  taken  as  equivalent  to  each 
sitting,  including  aisles,  etc.  Opera  chairs  are  made 
of  different  widths,  20  inches  being  a  standard  from 
center  to  center,  of  arms,  and  as  most  seating  of  this 
kind  is  laid  out  in  curves  of  different  radia,  the  manu- 
facturers of  such  articles  make  chairs  of  fractional 
widths  which  will  bring  the  seats  at  the  aisles  even 
on  both  sides,  and  such  variation  from  the  standard 
used  will  not  be  enough  to  be  noticed.  The  rows  of 
seats  are  placed  back  to  back,  2'-6"  being  a  minimum. 

Where  opera  chairs  are  used,  the  floor  to  assembly 
hall  is  often  concave  or  sloping,  as  this  feature  will 
give  better  results  in  enabling  each  individual  to  see 
the  stage  without  discomfort.  It  will  also  increase  the 
cost  of  construction  somewhat. 

As  it  is  often  desirable  to  have  some  large  area 
of  level  floor  space,  preferably  in  the  assembly  hall,  a 


SCHOOL,    BUILDINGS  21 

combination  of  the  two  may  be  utilized  in  having  the 
seats  movable  from  the  stage  back  to  half  of  the  depth 
of  the  room,  and  from  that  point  fixed  seats  being 
used  on  an  inclined  or  concave  floor.  This  arrange- 
ment will  be  found  satisfactory,  as  the  seats  most  re- 
mote from  the  stage  are  those  that  have  to  be  raised 
above  those  preceding,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  correct 
lines  of  sight. 

ASSEMBLY  HALLS— GALLERIES 

Galleries  or  balconies  are  not  objectionable  to  in- 
crease the  seating  capacity  of  an  auditorium  when 
proper  provisions  are  made  for  ventilating  them ;  other- 
wise the  heat  and  foul  air  will  make  them  uncomfort- 
able. They  are  always  arranged  with  seats  stepped 
up  towards  the  rear  to  assist  in  obtaining  the  proper 
sighting.  Aisles  should  be  sloping  and  free  from 
steps  if  possible. 

STAIRWAYS 

Stairways  in  school  buildings  are  rarely  of  one  run. 
The  most  common  form  are  those  that  start  from  a 
floor,  have  a  landing  at  about  half  way  and  continue 
back  again  to  the  floor  above.  Winders  are  never 
used. 

The  width  of  stairs  varies  in  most  cases  and  for 
a  double  run  will  be  anywhere  from  4%  feet  up  to 
6  feet,  which  dimensions  may  represent  a  minimum 
and  maximum  width.  As  most  corridors  will  average 
from  10  to  12  feet  in  width  and  as  it  is  usual  to  have 


22  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

the  stairs  at  both  ends  of  corridors,  it  will  be  readily 
seen  that  each  run  of  stairs  is  half  the  width  of  the 
corridor;  and  it  is  stated  by  one  authority  that  for 
a  run  of  stairs,  anything  greater  than  six  (6)  feet  is 
wasteful.  It  is  better  to  provide  more  stairways. 

The  steps  themselves  are  of  easy  climb,  the  treads 
being  approximately  twelve  (12)  inches  in  width  and 
the  rise  never  over  seven  (7)  inches  in  height. 

The  stairs  should  be  of  fire-proof  construction  their 
entire  height  and  in  many  cities  such  construction  is 
regulated  by  local  ordinances.  It  matters  little  what 
material  is  used  in  their  construction  as  long  as  they 
are  fire-proof,  although  concrete  is  being  used  ex- 
tensively. When  such  is  the  case,  the  balustrade  may 
be  made  solid,  curving  at  the  landings,  and  doing 
away  entirely  with  newel  posts  and  forming  a  smooth 
rail  from  basement  to  the  top  floor  without  breaks  of 
any  kind.  Such  a  balustrade  is  strong  and  free  from 
the  numerous  surfaces  presented  to  catch  dust,  found 
with  the  more  antiquated  balustrade  with  iron  or 
wood  balusters.  The  treads  may  be  protected  by  any 
one  of  the  numerous  metal  and  composition  safety 
treads,  which  will  form  a  still  more  important  func- 
tion in  forming  a  surface  that  will  prevent  slipping 
and  one  that  will  wear  well. 

Ample  lighting  should  be  obtained  for  all  stairs, 
especially  at  the  landings,  as  when  provided  for  here, 
light  will  be  thrown  on  both  runs  of  stairs  and  par- 
tially down  the  corridors. 

Most  school  buildings  of  any  size  will  have  two 
stairways  from  the  first  floor  to  the  ones  above, 


SCHOOL    BUILDINGS  23 

whether  or  not  in  connection  with  entrances.  In  the 
latter  case  the  entrances  themselves  should  be  ample 
and  free  from  obstruction.  Many  entrances  have  ves- 
tibule doors,  the  balance  of  the  opening  being  taken 
up  by  partitions  which  might  as  well  be  substituted 
with  an  additional  glazed  door,  used  or  not  as  desired, 
but  convenient  should  the  occasion  arise. 

CORRIDORS 

Corridors  are  proportionate  in  width  to  the  num- 
ber of  pupils  passing  to  or  through  them,  and  for  the 
accommodation  of  any  articles  that  may  be  placed  in 
them.  "They  should  receive  natural  direct  light  and 
ventilation  from  outside  windows ;  a  long  corridor 
lighted  wholly  by  borrowed  light,  no  matter  how 
abundant,  invariably  produces  an  effect  of  confine- 
ment which  is  depressing.  Windows  or  stair  land- 
ings are  very  serviceable,  as  they  shed  their  light  far 
into  the  corridors.  There  is,  of  course,  no  objection 
to  borrowed  light  as  an  accessory  to  direct  window 
lighting;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  glass  tran- 
soms and  glazed  doors,  though  they  afford  light,  give 
no  air  to  the  corridors  and  cannot  take  the  place  of 
windows  opening  into  the  outer  air." 

That  corridors  should  be  any  particular  width  is 
arbitrary,  but  in  school  buildings  of  a  more  or  less 
typical  size,  they  may  be  approximately  of  the  same 
width.  There  seems  to  be  no  logical  reason  why 
a  corridor  serving  four  rooms  only,  should  be  the 
same  width  as  one  that  opens  into  eight  class  rooms 


24  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

or  more,  or  that  the  entrance  "loggia"  may  not  be 
18  or  more  feet  in  width.  Eight  feet  might  be  con- 
sidered a  minimum  width  for  main  corridors,  and 
twelve  feet  wide  an  average.  One  authority  on  the 
subject  states  that  a  greater  width  than  12  feet  is 
a  waste  of  room  and  therefore,  poor  planning.  It  is 
certain  that  no  typical  corridor  need  be  wider  than 
that  dimension  to  comfortably  fulfill  its  purpose. 

Corridors  on  the  second  floors  need  not  be  of  the 
same  size  as  those  on  the  lower,  but  in  most  buildings 
are  so  for  economy  in  construction  and  general  ap- 
pearance. 

A  type  of  corridor  in  California  called  a  "Cloister" 
is  very  popular  in  one-story  buildings,  and  in  some 
cases  in  two-story  buildings.  It  is  left  open  in  sum- 
mer, a  desirable  feature  in  extreme  localities  and  one 
which  eliminates  the  need  of  mechanical  ventila- 
tion features  to  a  certain  extent  as  far  as  the  corridor 
is  concerned,  as  the  air  may  circulate  unrestricted. 
In  most  cases,  however,  a  "Cloister"  consisting  of  a 
repetition  of  open  arches  should  be  enclosed  with 
sash  glazed  with  wire  glass  or  storm  sash  in  the 
severe  winter  months  to  keep  out  the  weather.  This 
will  also  mean  additional  heating  if  the  "Cloister"  is 
to  serve  as  a  corridor,  but  not  so  many  changes  of 
air  will  be  required  as  in  class  rooms.  "Cloister"  floors 
are  generally  of  cement  or  similar  material. 

The  floors  to  inside  corridors  may  be  linoleum 
over  cement  or  wood,  terrazo,  tile,  composition,  etc., 
depending  upon  the  kind  and  construction!  of  the 
building. 


SCHOOL,    BUILDINGS  25 

A  foot  warmer  will  be  found  necessary  near  en- 
trances in  the  more  severe  climates. 

The  walls  to  corridors  may  have  enameled  brick 
tile,  "Keene's"  cement  or  other  durable  wainscot,  as 
near  water-proof  as  possible.  Wood  should  not  be 
used  as  a  substitute.  Above  the  wainscot,  walls  and 
ceiling  may  be  left  smooth  for  tinting  or  painting. 

CLASS  ROOMS 

Typical  class  rooms  are  usually  24  feet  by  32  feet 
(24x32).  They  may  be  any  size,  it  is  true,  but  that 
size  will  accomodate  56  primary  or  48  grammar  school 
pupils — all  that  one  teacher  can  properly  handle,  ac- 
cording to  opinions  of  most  educational  authorities. 
A  width  of  24  feet  will  also  admit  a  sufficient  amount 
of  light  along  the  wall  opposite  the  windows,  and 
the  length  of  32  feet  will  permit  easy  sight  of  the 
blackboard  behind  the  teacher's  desk,  and  will  not 
be  too  far  to  readily  hear  in  the  farthest  part  of  the 
room.  In  most  of  the  best  public  school  buildings 
throughout  the  country,  this  size,  or  approximately 
this  size  is  used,  and  may  be  considered  a  standard. 

Size  of  Class  Rooms  in  Grammar  Schools 

Boston    23'  x29' 42  pupils 

New  York 22'  x  30' 40  pupils 

Chicago    24'  x  34' 48  pupils 

St.  Louis    24'  x  32'6" 48  pupils 

San   Francisco    ...  .26'  x  32' 48  pupils 

The  height  of  class  rooms  vary  slightly,  depending 


26  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

upon   its   size,    12' -6"   to    13'-6"   being   the   customary 
height. 

One  ample  door  to  corridor,  40  to  44  inches  wide, 
should  be  provided  near  the  teacher's  end  of  the  room, 
alike  for  entrance  and  exit.  Such  a  door  is  wide 
enough  to  allow  two  files  to  pass  in  or  out  at  once, 
and  is  under  the  teacher's  eye  and  full  control.  A 
large  single  panel  of  opaque  wire  glass  will  allow 
light  through  the  door  and  is  practically  indestructible. 
Six  rows  of  eight  desks  each,  from  front  to  rear,  can 
be  conveniently  placed  in  a  room  24x32  feet  and 
seven  rows  of  eight  deskes  each,  for  the  primary 
grades.  Widths  of  from  27  to  30  feet  are  common 
for  class  rooms  in  the  United  States,  but  do  not 
represent  the  best  practice,  the  tendency  being  to  de- 
crease the  size  of  rooms  with  proportionate  teaching 
facilities. 


TEACHERS'  CLOSET 

A  combination  book  case,  closet  and  wardrobe  is 
usually  built  into  the  wall  in  class  rooms  as  near 
the  teacher's  desk  as  may  be  practical.  It  need  not 
be  over  12"  to  18"  in  depth,  and  in  many  instances 
it  can  be  built  into  the  wall  and  project  into  the 
room  not  more  than  6",  or  if  flush  with  the  wall  so 
much  the  better.  The  case  is  from  3'-0"  to  4'-0"  long 
and  contains  shelves,  cupboard,  two  drawers,  the 
book  case  being  fitted  with  glass  doors.  Corner  closets 
are  built  in  some  rooms,  but  disfigure  the  appearance 


SCHOOL    BUILDINGS  27 

of  the  room  and  do  not  lend  themselves  as  well  to 
book   shelves,  etc. 

LIGHTING  OF  CLASS  ROOMS 

The  lighting  of  class  rooms  occasions  more  dis- 
cussion and  theories  than  any  other  controling  element 
in  school  design,  is  much  discussed,  and  often  very 
positive  conclusions  are  arrived  at  by  those  who  are 
not  sufficiently  familiar  with  both  theory  and  prac- 
tice. It  must  be  remembered  that  too  much  light  is 
not  a  bad  fault,  for  even  if  incorrectly  placed  it  may 
be  closed  over  with  shades  when  not  desired,  while  too 
little  light  is  a  fault  that  cannot  be  remedied. 

It  is  almost  universally  agreed  that  class  rooms 
should  be  lighted  from  one  side  only,  unless  of  ex- 
ceptional width,  a  partial  exception  sometimes  being 
made  for  corner  rooms,  which  may  have  windows  in 
the  end  at  the  rear  of  the  desks,  opposite  the  teacher's 
platform.  When  windows  are  so  placed  their  purpose 
primarily  is  for  securing  some  sunlight  in  a  room  that 
it  not  otherwise  arranged  to  allow  an  abundance  of 
this  most  necessary  adjunct  to  ventilation  and  sani- 
tation. 

If  possible,  class  rooms  should  have  sunlight  at 
some  time  during  the  day,  and  if  such  light  be  an- 
noying at  times,  it  may  be  very  easily  removed  by 
drawing  a  shade  over  it. 

The  best  practice  favors  a  blank  wall  opposite  the 
teacher  and  pupils,  so  as  to  avoid  the  glare  in  cither's 
eyes.  When  windows  are  placed  in  the  rear  of  the 


28  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

room,  the  pupils  in  the  two  or  three  rearmost  rows  sit 
in  their  own  light  from  such  windows,  which  is  un- 
pleasant, and  often  injurious  to  sensitive  eyes.  The 
customary  light  for  a  school  room  is  that  which  comes 
from  the  left  side  and  from  slightly  in  front  of  the 
pupil.  Light  from  "over  the  left  shoulder"  is  often 
advised  as  the  best  for  reading;  but  it  is  bad  for  writ- 
ing and  drawing,  as  it  may  cast  the  shadow  of  the  body 
across  the  work  on  the  desk. 

In  some  of  the  most  modern  school  buildings,  sky- 
lights are  provided  for  in  the  ceiling,  and  light  from 
this  source  used  independent  of  the  windows  else- 
where ;  but  this  method  is  not  practical  in  most  cases, 
as  school  buildings  are  not  usually  of  one  story  in 
height.  It  may  readily  be  seen  that  skylights  are  im- 
possible for  a  building  of,  say  four  floors  or  more,  ex- 
cepting for  the  topmost  floor.  Overhead  lighting  may 
be  the  ideal  light,  and  future  developments  may  revo- 
lutionize the  present  lighting  ideas  to  some  extent  in 
the  smaller  buildings  where  such  lighting  may  be 
taken  advantage  of. 

The  area  of  light  for  class  rooms  is  approximately 
equivalent  to  one-fifth  (1/5)  of  the  entire  floor  area. 

WINDOWS  (Class  Room) 

Windows  are  not  usually  less  than  three  and  one- 
half  (3^2)  feet  above  the  floor,  as  light  lower  than  that 
level  is  useless,  and  they  should  extend  to  within  one 
foot  of  the  ceiling,  as  the  higher  up  they  run  the  more 
efficient  is  the  lighting.  In  some  schools  windows  ex- 


SCHOOL    BUILDINGS  29 

tend  to  within  six  (6)  inches  of  the  ceiling  and  inter- 
fere somewhat  with  the  cove  ceiling  that  is  usually 
run  around  a  class  room;  but  even  this  may  be  over- 
come without  serious  defect. 

Shadows  may  be  eliminated  to  some  extent  by  nar- 
row mullions,  and  the  most  ideal  results  will  be  ob- 
tained by  a  mass  of  windows  closely  grouped  together, 
as  those  found  in  factory  construction,  a  studio,  or 
windows  similar  to  those  found  in  the  New  York 
schools  of  more  recent  date.  This  arrangement  does 
not  adapt  itself  to  some  styles  of  architecture  and  sat- 
isfactory results  may  be  had  with  other  arrangements, 
provided  windows  are  not  placed  too  far  apart  and 
are  of  sufficient  area.  These  requirements  hold  in  gen- 
eral for  grammar  schools,  but  high  or  secondary 
schools  do  not  require  such  exact  conditions,  due  to  the 
fact  that  students  are  not  confined  to  any  one  room 
during  the  entire  day  and  are  fewer  in  number  per  class 
room.  Bilateral  lighting  is  permissible  only  in  wide 
study  rooms  over  thirty  feet  in  width. 

Architects  are  occasionally  seriously  hampered  by 
arbitrary  opinions  of  school  trustees,  often  well  taken, 
but  not  so  vital  as  others  having  equal  importance  in 
the  whole  solution  of  the  problem.  In  fact,  there  are 
trustees  who  have  such  decided  opinions  on  this  sub- 
ject that  they  have  been  known  to  entirely  discard  a 
carefully  studied  solution  to  their  problem  because  the 
fenestration  was  arranged  differently  from  their  own 
ideas. 

For  grammar  schools  it  will  generally  be  found 
sufficient  for  those  in  charge  to  see  that  approximately 


30  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

one-fifth   (1/5)   of  the  floor  area  is  in  glass  and  that 
the  windows  are  fairly  well  grouped. 


CLOAK  ROOMS 

Cloak  rooms  or  wardrobes  in  grammar  schools  are 
for  the  purpose  of  providing  hanging  and  storage  space 
for  pupils'  wraps,  rubber  shoes,  etc.,  and  are  usually 
located  at  the  side  or  end  of  a  class  room,  preferably 
the  latter,  as  a  window  may  be  more  readily  placed  in 
the  wall  at  the  end  of  that  room,  a  very  important  con- 
venience. Often  so-called  ventilation  is  obtained  in 
them  by  air  passing  through  a  screen  in  the  lower  half 
of  cloak  room  doors  from  class  rooms,  and  thence  up 
to  the  ceiling  of  the  cloak  room.  This  may  not  be 
strictly  termed  ventilation,  as  the  air  has  been  used 
once  in  the  class  room,  but  its  velocity  will  be  greater 
in  the  latter  room  and  such  as  it  is,  will  assist  in  dry- 
ing out  garments  that  may  be  damp,  etc. 

Whether  pupils  should  enter  the  class  room  first 
and  then  pass  into  the  cloak  room,  thus  allowing  the 
teacher  to  keep  surveillance  over  those  passing  therein, 
and  practically  eliminating  stolen  articles,  'etc.,  or 
whether  the  pupil  should  pass  into  the  cloak  room 
first,  leaving  wet  and  muddy  garments  in  the  ward- 
robe before  entering  and  disturbing  the  room,  is  a  sub- 
ject under  discussion  in  all  communities,  and  one 
which  may  well  be  taken  from  either  standpoint.  Pos- 
sibly the  former  arrangement  is  the  better,  especially 
in  the  primary  grades,  as  it  is  thereby  impossible  for  a 
pupil  to  remain  in  the  wardrobe  without  the  teacher's 


SCHOOL    BUILDINGS  31 

knowledge.  In  planning  the  school,  this  discussion 
may  be  eliminated  entirely  and  either  system  used,  or 
both,  by  merely  providing  a  door  at  the  entrance  to 
wardrobe  from  corridor,  as  a  means  of  communication, 
the  door  being  locked  if  desired. 

The  size  of  cloak  rooms  should  not  be  less  than 
four  and  one-Half  (4^)  feet  in  width,  and  are  usually 
in  length,  approximately,  twenty-four  (24)  feet  (the 
width  of  the  class  room).  When  such  is  the  case  a 
width  exceeding  5'-0"  is  a  waste  of  space. 

Coat  hooks  should  be  spaced  on  each  wall  about 
12"  to  18"  apart,  alternately,  at  two  different  levels. 
If  numbered,  each  pupil  will  readily  know  the  location 
of  his  own  hook  and  may  pass  without  delay  through 
the  cloak  room.  Height  of  lower  hooks — kindergar- 
ten, 30  inches  from  the  floor.  Height  of  lower  hooks, 
—upper  grades,  44,  48  and  52  inches  from  the  floor. 

Where  mechanical  ventilation  is  used,  the  two 
doors  opening  into  the  cloak  rooms  from  class  room 
have  heavy  galvanized  iron  screens  in  lower  panel; 
these  doors  will  be  about  2'-6"  wide. 

Patent  Wardrobes 

There  are  other  systems  than  the  above,  used  for 
wardrobes,  some  of  which  have  been  found  successful 
under  certain  favorable  conditions.  Racks  have  been 
placed  in  the  halls  in  some  schools,  thus  eliminating 
the  so-called  "cloak  room"  entirely,  but  their  use  has 
many  disadvantages,  the  least  of  which  is  the  neces- 
sary unkempt  appearance  of  the  corridors  so  used. 

The  capacity  of  cabinets  with  rolling  fronts  is  not 


32  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

to  be  compared  with  the  average  sized  cloak  room,  and 
the  sanitary  arrangement  is  not  equal  to  a  suitable 
room  with  a  window. 

Outside  of  the  functions  of  a  wardrobe,  namely,  to 
conveniently  care  for  the  pupils'  wraps,  provision  must 
be  made  for  suitably  ventilating  it  and  shelves  pro- 
vided for  lunch  boxes,  racks  for  umbrellas,  etc. 

Terrazo,  composition,  or  other  waterproof  floors 
will  be  found  desirable  in  wardrobes. 

BLACKBOARDS 

There  are  several  kinds  of  blackboards,  natural 
(slate)  and  composition,  used  extensively  in  school 
buildings,  as  well  as  numerous  paint  products  which 
have  their  usefulness,  but  can  in  no  way  be  considered 
as  blackboards. 

Slate  is  by  far  the  most  durable,  and  in  the  long 
run  the  most  economical  as  well,  weather  conditions 
having  no  effect  upon  its  surface,  which  cannot  always 
be  said  of  the  composition  blackboards.  The  latter  are 
usually  built  up  on  felt  board,  about  one-quarter  of 
an  inch  thick,  and  finished  with  a  composition  surface 
less  than  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  thick;  this  surface 
resembles  slate  in  appearance  and  texture  and  sup- 
plies a  satisfactory  surface  in  most  particulars.  It  is 
possible  that  dampness  may  creep  into  the  backing 
and  cause  it  to  buckle,  thus  injuring  the  surface.  The 
manufacturers  of  the  composition  boards  give  a  ten- 
year  guarantee  on  their  product,  which  means  that 
they  will  replace  same  if  so  damaged.  Preparation 


SCHOOL    BUILDINGS  33 

for  these  boards  consists  of  a  smooth  wood  backing, 
to  which  they  are  glued  on  with  clamps.  Air  spaces, 
where  the  glue  does  not  adhere  perfectly,  may  be  de- 
tected, the  hollow  sound  made  by  rapping  the  surface 
with  the  knuckles.  The  boards  come  in  different 
lengths,  12  feet  being  common,  and  in  widths  of  3'-0", 
3'-6"  and  4'-0". 

Another  board  which  may  come  under  this  classifi- 
cation consists  simply  of  a  "skim  coat"  plastered  over 
the  wall  plaster  beneath,  and  is  of  a  similar  quality  and 
texture  as  that  just  described  for  board  backing.  It  is 
also  less  than  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  thickness, 
and  if  put  on  by  its  manufacturers  smoothly,  is  just  as 
good  a  surface  for  chalk.  Metal  lath  is  usually  used 
for  the  plastered  surface  in  connection  with  this  board 
to  reduce  the  cracking  (due  to  building  shrinkage)  to 
a  minimum. 

The  heights  of  blackboards  are  usually  as  follows: 

Primary  grades    26"  from  the  floor 

Intermediate  grades 30"  from  the  floor 

Higher  grades    36"  from  the  floor 

The  height  of  the  board  itself  should  be  3'-6"  for 
the  lower  grades  and  4'-0"  for  the  higher  grades. 

Often  the  blackboards  behind  teachers'  desks  ex- 
tend still  higher  to  enable  chalk  work  to  be  readily 
seen  from  all  parts  of  the  room.  The  cost  of  black- 
boards is  variable,  depending  on  sizes,  freight  rates, 
areas,  etc.  In  general,  slate  may  run  from  20  to  35 
cents  per  square  foot,  and  composition  boards  15  to 
25  cents,  in  place  on  the  wall. 


34  SCHOOL,    BUILDINGS 

BLACKBOARD  TRIMMINGS 

Trim  for  blackboards  consists  of  wood  or  metal 
chalk  rail,  grooved  to  form  a  trough  to  catch  the  chalk 
dust  and  hold  crayon,  pointers,  etc.  Where  vacuum 
cleaning  apparatus  is  installed  this  trough  may  have 
apertures  to  remove  the  dust,  and  covered  over  with 
screening.  The  usefulness  of  the  arrangement  is 
doubtful,  however.  At  the  top  of  the  board  a  wood 
strip  forms  the  trim,  usually  grooved  like  a  plate  rail, 
to  hold  cards,  pictures,  etc.  (and  more  or  less  miscel- 
laneous dust). 

PRINCIPAL'S  AND  TEACHERS'  ROOM 

A  room  for  the  principal,  also  one  for  the  teachers, 
is  usually  required  in  every  school  building.  A  room 
containing  approximately  240  square  feet  will  be  suffi- 
cient for  each.  They  may  be  fitted  with  lavatories  and 
a  toilet  in  the  teachers'  room,  or  both.  Wardrobes 
should  be  built  into  the  walls  of  the  teachers'  room  and 
a  gas  plate,  concealed  in  a  cabinet,  may  be  convenient. 
The  pnncipal's  office  should  have  a  supply  closet, 
wardrobe,  bookcase,  and  if  a  large  school,  a  private 
office  will  be  required,  120  square  feet  being  a  fair 
minimum  size.  The  location  of  these  rooms  should 
be  as  near  the  entrance  as  convenient,  especially  the 
principal's  room,  and  also  near  the  center  of  commun- 
ication. 

TOILET  ROOMS 

Toilet  rooms  for  grammar  schools   are  generally 


SCHOOL,    BUILDINGS  35 

placed  on  the  ground  or  basement  floor,  where  they 
can  be  reached  from  the  play  yard  as  well  as  from  the 
building.  They  should  be  well  lighted  and  ventilated 
and  in  some  instances  a  separate  building  connected 
to  main  building  by  a  cloister  or  covered  corridor  will 
be  found  admirable  when  plenty  of  ground  area  is  ob- 
tainable. Wire  glass  will  be  found  suitable  for  the 
glazing  of  windows.  Tile,  cement  or  composition 
floors  are  used  (never  wood),  sloping  slightly  to  drain. 
The  walls  may  be  of  any  material  excepting  wood ; 
hard  burned  or  salt  glazed  brick  being  a  suitable  ma- 
terial. Cement  wainscot  or  tile  may  be  used  when  it 
is  necessary  to  fur  out  the  walls  on  account  of  damp- 
ness. The  ceilings  are  of  plaster.  The  number  of 
fixtures  required  for  toilet  rooms  will  be  variable.  The 
Massachusetts  rule  is  2.25  fixtures  for  each  class  room 
75  boys',  1.5  girls'  and  33  lineal  feet  of  urinal  per  class 
room.  The  above  rule  will  be  found  ample.  (See  san- 
itation for  fixtures.) 

DOORS 

Class  room  doors  into  the  corridor  should  be  from 
3'-0"  to  3'-6"  in  width,  and  glazed  with  opaque  wire 
glass.  The  latter  being  a  heavy  plate  glass  with  a 
metal  wire  woven  into  it  and  admitting  light,  but 
being  of  itself  almost  indestructible. 

Exterior  assembly  room  doors  are  usually  double 
and  always  open  outward  to  exit,  being  mechanically 
operated  by  pressure  against  them  from  the  inside. 

Doors  from  corridors  to  assembly  room  are  double 
swing,  not  more  than  2'-6"  wide  each,  and  not  over 


36  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

7'-0"  in  height;  large  or  heavy  doors  are  cumbersome 
to  handle  if  used  extensively. 

Main  entrance  doors  open  out,  except  in  connection 
with  entrance  vestibules,  in  which  case  they  may  be 
swung  in  and  fastened  against  the  wall  out  of  the  way, 
leaving  the  vestibule  doors  to  be  used  in  their  place. 

Wardrobe  doors  (from  class  room  to  wardrobe) 
are  2'-6"  in  width  and  are  made  with  an  iron  ventilat- 
ing screen  in  the  bottom  for  ventilating  purposes.  The 
height  of  all  doors  need  not  be  more  than  7'-0". 

FLOORS 

Wood  floors  in  class  rooms  are  of  first  quality  ver- 
tical grain  pine  or  maple,  the  latter  being  used  almost 
universally  in  assembly  hall,  gymnasium,  domestic 
science  room,  laboratories,  etc.  Composition  floors  are 
being  used  as  finish  floors  throughout  some  of  the  fire- 
proof structures,  and  it  is  possible  that  in  time  they  may 
supplant  wood,  even  in  buildings  whose  sub-floor  is 
also  frame. 

Corridor,  stair  and  vestibule  floors  may  be  of  wood, 
composition,  marble,  tile,  etc. — even  cement  in  some 
cases.  Cement  or  composition  floors  are  used  almost 
entirely  for  toilet,  play  room,  furnace  room,  etc. 

WALLS  (Class  Rooms) 

Wall  spaces,  not  covered  by  blackboard,  may  be 
plastered  and  tinted,  or  covered  with  burlap.  Tile, 
Keene's  cement,  or  any  durable  material  may  be  used 
as  wainscot  below  blackboards  and  around  corridor 
walls ;  also  around  cloak  room  walls. 


SCHOOL,    BUILDINGS  37 

CEILINGS 

Ceilings  are  12/-6"  to  13'-6"  for  class  rooms.  In  cor- 
ridors and  cloak  rooms  they  may  be  furred  down  to  lO'-O" 
to  allow  concealed  space  for  heat  and  vent  ducts.  Cove 
ceilings  are  desirable  in  such  rooms  as  may  lend  them- 
selves to  treatment,  as  dust,  etc.  will  not  get  into  cor- 
ners in  places  where  it  is  difficult  to  clean,  and  the 
appearance  of  the  room  is  also  much  improved  with 
their  use. 

KINDERGARTEN 

A  large  room,  a  small  one,  supply  closet,  wardrobe 
and  toilet  will  be  sufficient.  The  main  room  should 
take  a  sixteen  (16)  foot  circle  and  the  floor  may  be  of 
linoleum,  lined  off  as  desired  by  the  instructor.  A 
teachers'  wardrobe  and  bookcase  will  complete  the  ar- 
rangements. If  the  subject  is  ,an  innovation  to  the 
community  erecting  the  building,  an  ordinary  class 
room  will  answer  the  purpose  for  some  time. 

SPECIAL  ROOMS 

In  large  cities,  where  a  school  physician  is  em- 
ployed for  vaccinating  purposes  or  for  testing  the  eyes 
and  teeth  of  pupils,  two  small  rooms  may  be  provided 
for  that  purpose,  a  total  area  of  240  square  feet  being 
ample.  They  should  be  fitted  with  lavatory,  cases, 
etc.  The  teachers'  or  principal's  room  may  be  used 
for  the  above  purposes  if  the  school  is  of  small  size. 

Janitor's  Room 

A  janitor's  room  is  located  on  the  ground  floor  and 


38  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

should  be  provided  with  some  outside    light,    store 
room,  sink,  work  bench  and  closet  space. 

Engineer's  Room 

Schools  of  large  size,  where  steam  is  used  for  heat- 
ing and  other  purposes,  require  an  engineer's  room, 
containing  lavatory  and  more  or  less  wardrobe  or 
closet  space. 

PLAY  ROOMS 

Play  rooms  are  necessary  for  use  in  inclement 
weather,  where  there  is  no  gymnasium.  As  much  open 
space  is  desirable  as  is  possible.  Good  light,  and  the 
same  floor,  wall  and  ceiling  material  as  called  for  in 
toilet  rooms,  should  be  provided  for.  Drinking  foun- 
tains are  placed  in  each  play  room,  which  should  be 
in  close  connection  with  the  toilet  room.  In  the  large 
cities,  play  rooms  for  high  buildings  are  placed  on  the 
roof  for  economic  reasons,  but  the  average  school  will 
have  plenty  of  space  in  the  basement  or  ground  floor 
for  such  purpose. 

DOMESTIC  SCIENCE 

Some  form  of  domestic  science  is  taught  in  most 
grammar  schools,  and  if  the  school  is  of  sufficient  size, 
and  a  special'teacher  is  provided  for  that  purpose,  more 
or  less  suitable  space  is  required. 

This  space  should  be  well  lighted,  and  if  cooking 
is  introduced,  work  benches,  gas  plates,  cupboards, 
dresser,  sinks,  etc.,  will  be  necessary.  Sewing  rooms 


SCHOOL    BUILDINGS  39 

may  be  of  any  size,  the  ordinary  class  room  being  suffi- 
ciently large.     (See  domestic  science  for  high  schools.) 

MANUAL  TRAINING 

Manual  training  is  now  taught  to  some  extent  in 
grammar  schools,  and  provision  should  be  made  in  a 
new  building  for  that  purpose.  The  arrangement  may 
be  as  elaborate  as  funds  will  allow,  from  a  single  room 
and  store  room  up  to  the  model  described  as  follows: 

The  room  itself  should  be  finished  as  nearly  as 
possible  to  resemble  a  shop,  with  wood  floor,  high 
wainscot  of  brick,  tile  or  cement  and  plastered  ceiling. 
The  location  may  be  in  the  basement  or  ground  floor 
and  from  600  to  1000  square  feet  in  area,  depending 
upon  the  size  of  the  school.  A  corner  room,  well 
lighted  on  both  sides,  is  preferable.  The  room  will 
contain  possibly  twenty-eight  benches  and  stools,  dis- 
play frames,  demonstration  table  and  steps  for  in- 
struction. 

In  addition  to  the  room  proper,  a  stock  room 
(eighty  square  feet),  long  and  narrow,  fitted  with  racks 
or  shelves,  and  connecting  to  the  outside  wall  by  win- 
dow, will  be  necessary.  A  large  teacher's  closet  (forty 
square  feet)  for  storage  of  finished  pieces,  and  book 
case  similar  to  those  in  a  class  room,  will  be  required. 
A  sink,  three  feet  long,  and  work  rack  of  lockers  should 
be  included,  the  rack  being  used  to  receive  pieces  of 
work  at  different  stages. 

No  machinery  is  installed  in  manual  training  room 
for  grammar  schools,  as  the  raw  material  for  this  de- 


40  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

partment  may  be  delivered  at  the  building  cut  up  and 
ready  for  use. 

GYMNASIUM 

Gymnasiums  are  not  provided  in  grammar  schools 
unless  they  be  of  large  size  or  in  cases  where  little 
or  no  yard  space  is  available.  (See  gymnasiums  under 
high  schools.) 

TINTING  OF  WALLS 

Pure  white  is  a  bad  color  for  class  rooms,  or  any 
combination  of  white  and  black,  as  both  are  consid- 
ered cold  and  have  a  depressing  effect,  especially  in 
rooms  which  are  constantly  occupied. 

The  ceilings  of  all  rooms  and  corridors  should  be 
a  light  cream  color,  as  that  color  is  pleasing  to  the 
eye,  and  makes  the  room  light  and  airy.  The  walls 
may  be  cream  colored  also,  preferably  of  a  slightly 
darker  tone,  or  any  warm  grey  color,  avoiding  strong 
tones  of  red,  yellow  or  blue,  or  any  combination  of 
them.  The  wainscot  under  the  blackboards  may  be 
of  a  still  darker  grey,  as  it  will  get  considerable  wear 
and  more  or  less  hard  usage. 

Water  colors,  tinting  or  oil  paint,  stippled  to  kill 
the  gloss,  are  suitable  for  class  rooms.  In  some  cases 
enamel  is  used  below  the  blackboards,  a  material  that 
may  be  readily  washed  off  and  one  that  will  stand  con- 
siderable hard  usage  when  put  on  over  Keene's  cement 
or  other  similar  cement  wainscot. 


SCHOOL    BUILDINGS  41 

HIGH  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 

The  same  general  problems  have  to  be  solved  for 
high  school  buildings  as  those  for  grammar  schools, 
and  many  others  in  addition,  but  fortunately  many  so- 
called  "iron-clad"  requirements  may  be  materially 
modified,  as  the  control  of  high  school  pupils  is  some- 
what simplified,  due  to  a  difference  in  age  and  intelli- 
gence from  that  of  primary  pupils. 

In  high  school  buildings,  smaller  class  rooms,  24x 
32  feet,  are  often  better  adapted  to  some  of  the  sub- 
jects taught,  larger  rooms  being  reserved  for  study 
hall,  laboratories,  shops  and  assembly  hall,  the  latter 
often  being  used  for  a  study  hall,  when  not  provided 
for  otherwise.  The  introduction  of  manual  training 
facilities,  gymnasium,  chemistry,  and  physics  labora- 
tories, commercial  departments,  domestic  science, 
lunch  rooms,  etc.,  all  require  more  rooms  of  various 
sizes  to  suit  the  purposes  for  which  they  are  intended. 
Additional  administrative  rooms  will  be  required,  such 
as  principal's  office,  teachers'  rooms  for  both  sexes, 
and  one  or  more  instructors'  offices. 

The  average  architect  is  not  familiar  with  the  mis- 
cellaneous equipment  of  high  school  buildings,  and  it 
is  not  absolutely  necessary  that  he  should  be,  but  he 
must  acquaint  himself  with  the  apparatus  that  will  at 
some  time  enter  into  his  building,  even  though  its 
final  installation  be  effected  long  after  his  connection 
with  the  building  has  been  terminated. 

Unfortunately,  in  most  cities  too  little  time  is  de- 
voted to  laying  out  the  equipment  for  a  new  high 


42  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

school  before  the  plans  and  specifications  for  general 
construction  are  completed  and  building  operations 
commenced.  It  is  well  worth  while  to  devote  as  much 
time  and  study  as  may  be  necessary  to  lay  out  all 
school  equipment  thoroughly  before  it  is  too  late  to 
modify  the  general  construction  plans.  Many  cities 
have  learned  this  too  late  and  have  been  forced  to  in- 
stall in  their  buildings  equipment  inconveniently  ar- 
ranged because  of  limited  space,  or  in  conflict  with 
the  structural  details.  The  ideal  way  in  which  to  ap- 
proach this  problem  is,  first,  to  prepare  tentatively  all 
plans  and  specifications  for  general  construction,  in- 
cluding building,  heating,  ventilating,  plumbing,  wir- 
ing, etc.,  then  to  locate  on  the  same  drawings  and  at 
the  same  scale,  all  of  the  more  important  pieces  of 
equipment;  lastly,  to  complete  the  general  plans.  This 
order  of  procedure  avoids  conflicts  between  structural 
details  and  equipment  and  permits  the  maximum 
utility  of  all  space  in  the  building.  It  also  reduces  to 
a  minimum  changes  and  alterations  in  structural  de- 
tails to  accommodate  equipment  changes  that  cause 
delay  and  expense. 

Cloak  rooms  and  wardrobes  may  be  eliminated  with 
perfect  success  in  high  school  buildings  by  substitut- 
ing lockers  either  in  the  basement  or  corridors.  The 
lockers — the  metal  ones  preferred — may  be  arranged 
so  as  not  to  be  in  any  way  objectionable  so  far  as  ap- 
pearance is  concerned.  In  many  schools  the  boys' 
lockers  are  located  in  the  basement  and  the  girls'  lock- 
ers on  the  second  floor  corridor,  in  which  case  it  will 
be  found  very  convenient  if  the  girls'  toilet  is  located 


SCHOOL    BUILDINGS  43 

also  on  the  floor.  Combination  locks  may  be  supplied 
to  lockers  which  will  not  readily  get  out  of  order  and 
will  be  found  superior  to  locks  with  keys,  in  that  they 
can  not  get  lost. 

STUDY  HALLS 

A  study  hall  is  incorporated  in  a  great  many  high 
schools,  either  with  or  without  an  assembly  hall.  It 
is  not  a  necessity  in  every  case,  as  in  modern  high 
schools  the  assembly  hall  is  used  in  that  capacity  as 
well  as  the  library  and  unused  recitation  rooms  dur- 
ing certain  periods  of  the  day,  depending,  of  course, 
upon  the  system  of  instruction  and  discipline  of  the 
school.  It  is  usually  in  size  equivalent  to  two  class 
rooms,  but  any  size  over  and  above  that  of  a  class 
room  is  sufficient. 

ASSEMBLY  HALLS 

All  modern  high  schools  have  these  and  the  require- 
ments will  not  differ  materially,  except  for  size  from 
assembly  halls  as  described  under  that  title  for  gram- 
mar schools.  (See  page  17.) 

CLASS  ROOMS 

A  class  room  24x32  feet  will  acocmmodate  as  a 
maximum  capacity  forty-two  (42)  high  school  desks. 
In  many  high  schools,  class  rooms  may  be  more  cor- 
rectly termed  recitation  rooms,  as  they  are  used  only 
for  that  purpose  and  may  be  of  any  size,  down  to  20x28 


44  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

feet  in  size.  When  so  used,  desks  are  not  used  at  all, 
the  furniture  consisting  of  chairs  with  wide  arm  which 
answers  the  same  purpose.  Other  schools  will  have 
some  rooms  fitted  with  desks,  usually  movable,  and 
seating  two  persons  per  desk  in  straight  back  chairs, 
also  movable.  In  such  a  type  of  school  most  study  is 
done  either  in  the  assembly  hall,  study  hall,  library 
or  elsewhere  in  recitation  rooms  not  utilized  during 
certain  periods. 

The  size  of  class  rooms,  therefore,  in  high  schools 
is  dependable  upon  the  system  of  instruction,  but  in 
an  average  number  of  high  school  buildings  with  study 
or  assembly  hall,  a  few  rooms  24x32  feet  or  26x32  feet 
in  size,  two  or  three  smaller,  18x24  feet  average,  will 
be  found  sufficient  for  language,  mathematics,  history, 
rooms,  etc.,  not  requiring  special  fittings  such  as  lab- 
oratories. 

The  lighting  of  class  rooms  is  quite  different  for 
high  schools,  such  exact  quantities  as  required  for 
grammar  schools  not  being  necessary  on  account  of  the 
classes  being  smaller  in  the  first  place,  and  second, 
and  still  more  important,  the  system  of  instruction  is 
different,  the  pupils  not  being  required  to  remain  in 
the  same  seat  and  in  the  same  room  during  both 
periods. 

Blackboards  in  high  schools  are  usually  of  slate 
and  the  height  above  floor,  three  feet. 

COMMERCIAL  DEPARTMENT 

In  the  commercial  department  the  changes  of  the 
last  few  years  have  been  most  marked.  It  is  now  con- 


SCHOOL    BUILDINGS  45 

sidered  proper  school  practice  to  fit  out  the  rooms  as 
nearly  as  practicable  along  the  lines  that  are  adopted 
by  industrial  and  commercial  offices,  thus  furnishing 
pupils  with  the  appliances  that  the  present  day  offices 
will  present  as  soon  as  they  have  completed  their 
school  work. 

For  the  average  high  school,  instruction  in  this 
department  will  consist  of  a  typing  room,  often  a 
closed  partition  of  plaster  wall  and  plate  glass,  the 
latter  being  quite  extensive  in  area  and  facilitating 
supervision  over  that  department  without  an  addi- 
tional instructor;  a  bookkeeping  room,  and  one  or 
more  recitation  rooms  for  stenography  and  lectures  on 
business  methods,  etc. 

Store  rooms,  numerous  supply  cases  and  cupboards 
will  also  be  found  necessary  to  facilitate  proper  in- 
struction in  these  subjects,  the  arrangement  of  which 
— in  fact,  the  total  floor  space  occupied  by  the  com- 
mercial department — will  depend  on  the  number  of 
instructors  and  pupils  interested  in  those  subjects. 

CHEMICAL  LABORATORY 

Chemical  laboratories  are  usually  located  on  the 
ground  floor,  a  basement  floor  of  the  building,  al- 
though the  reason  for  such  a  location  is  rather  in- 
definite other  than  the  principal  class  rooms,  etc.,  are 
first  provided  for  and  what  space  is  left  after  they  have 
been  disposed  of  is  given  to  laboratories,  etc. 

Such  an  analysis  of  planning  is  not  the  best  and 
the  laboratories  may  better  be  located  on  the  top  floor, 


46  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

where  gases,  etc.,  are  less  likely  to  percolate  through 
the  building  and  where  an  abundant  amount  of  light 
may  usually  be  obtained. 

As  the  chemistry  laboratory  is  one  department  of 
the  science  group,  its  location  is  influenced  somewhat 
by  that  of  the  physical  laboratory  and  lecture  room, 
which  may  be  used  for  both  studies. 

The  size  will  depend  upon  the  number  of  pupils 
taught,  30  square  feet  per  pupil  being  taken  as  an 
approximate  space,  but  better  results  will  be  obtained 
by  blocking  off  all  articles  of  size  that  will  be  placed 
in  the  room,  tables,  sinks,  etc. 

A  laboratory  day  consists  of  four  or  five  periods, 
and  the  space  for  pupils'  individual  equipment  should 
be,  therefore,  four  or  five  times  the  working  capacity 
of  the  laboratory. 

The  use  of  acids  and  destructive  chemicals  in  the 
chemistry  department  plays  havoc  in  time  with  wood 
and  plumbing  pipes,  eating  away  and  discoloring  parts, 
so  that  it  is  impossible  to  keep  the  laboratory  in  a 
presentable  condition.  Glass  may  be  used  for  the  tops 
of  the  work  tables,  and  though  expensive,  it  may  be 
obtained  in  almost  any  thickness  and  in  either  white 
or  black  opaque  colors. 

Stone  of  some  varieties  is  sometimes  used,  also 
marble,  either  material  affording  far  better  wearing 
surfaces  than  the  common  wood  tops  usually  found 
in  smaller  schools.  Plumbing  pipes  should  be  lead 
lined,  and  all  sinks  should  be  porcelain  lined  to  pre- 
vent acid  from  eating  parts  inaccessible,  and  whose 
condition  is  unknown,  until  some  extensive  damage  is 


SCHOOL    BUILDINGS  47 

done.  The  customary  students'  chemical  work  table 
is  provided  with  two  or  more  sinks,  water  supply,  gas 
outlets,  a  combination  shelf  for  acid-proof  materials 
and  supplies.  Many  stock  tables  do  not  provide  toe 
space  at  floor  and  are  uncomfortable  to  work  at.  They 
should  be  raised  either  above  the  floor  or  spaces  left 
at  different  intervals  to  allow  pupils  to  work  close  to 
the  table. 

Chemistry  benches  or  work  tables  may  be  had 
from  manufacturers  and  be  single  or  double  and  of 
any  length  desirable.  The  size  mostly  used  is  the 
double  bench,  which  is  about  4^  feet  wide  and  10  to 
12  feet  long,  requiring  a  working  aisle  of  about  five 
feet  in  width.  The  preference  for  tables  of  this  type 
is  to  save  room  taken  up  by  the  aisle,  and  to  simplify 
plumbing.  Chemical  hoods  or  fume  closets  should  be 
well  ventilated  and  should  have  plate  glass  sides. 
Where  mechanical  ventilation  is  installed  in  the  build- 
ing, they  may  be  connected  to  the  system.  They  are 
about  eight  (8)  feet  in  height  and  of  variable  widths, 
according  to  the  number  of  pupils  to  provide  for. 

It  is  possible  in  many  cases  to  have  the  chemistry 
laboratory  directly  adjacent  to  the  back  of  the  lecture 
room,  in  which  case  enough  head  room  will  be  found 
under  the  seating  arrangement  in  that  room  to  pro- 
vide for  abundant  locker  and  store  room  area.  As  this 
space  would  be  otherwise  wasted,  such  an  arrange- 
ment will  be  readily  seen  to  be  of  great  advantage. 

CHEMICAL  HOODS 

A  double  chemistry  hood  or  "fume  closet"  is  about 


48  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

52x32  inches  in  area  and  7  or  8  feet  high,  plate  glass 
windows  in  the  front  if  flush  with  the  wall,  or  on  three 
sides  when  fixtures  project  into  the  room.  It  has 
gas  and  water  taps  on  the  counter  and  drawers  and 
cupboards  underneath,  and  is  ventilated  independently 
or  in  connection  with  a  mechanical  ventilating  plant. 

CHEMISTRY  TABLES 

These  may  be  of  different  sizes.  A  double  table 
12  feet  long  and  4  feet  wide,  accommodates  16  stu- 
dents working  in  sections  of  eight.  Such  a  table  sets 
free  in  the  room.  A  wall  type  half  the  size  in  length 
is  also  made  for  eight  pupils,  in  sections  of  four.  All 
tables  have  reagent  shelves,  sinks,  water  and  gas  sup- 
ply on  the  counter  and  drawers  and  cupboards  under, 
with  name  plates  and  locks.  More  elaborate  tables 
have  small  chemical  hoods  for  each  pupil,  glass  top 
and  reagent  shelves,  etc.,  the  equipment  depending 
upon  the  importance  and  funds  at  the  disposal  of 
this  department.  All  tables  should  be  solid  in  con- 
struction and  of  substantial  material,  as  they  will  get 
considerable  hard  usage. 

STORE  ROOMS 

A  store  room  and  some  cases  and  cupboards  are 
required  in  this  department  and  often  by  a  little  in- 
genuity on  the  part  of  the  architect  the  cases  may 
be  set  into  the  walls  so  that  they  are  flush  with  the 
same  in  the  front,  a  much  neater  and  more  sanitary 
arrangement. 


SCHOOL    BUILDINGS  49 

PHYSICAL  LABORATORY 

This  room  should  be  somewhat  larger  in  size  than 
the  ordinary  class  room,  should  be  located  near  or  ad- 
joining the  science  lecture  room,  and  in  addition  to 
the  room  proper  there  should  be  an  apparatus,  bal- 
ance, dark  and  store  rooms,  all  of  such  size  as  is  avail- 
able. The  main  laboratory  should  be  not  less  than 
24x36  feet. 

Laboratory  tables  are  of  quite  solid  construction 
with  gas,  electric  and  water  outlets ;  tables  seating 
from  two  to  four  will  be  the  average  fixture.  A  good 
arrangement  would  be  aisles  of  two  tables  with  sink 
and  drip  board  between,  and  seating  four  pupils  per 
table  or  eight  pupils  per  row.  A  demonstration  table 
of  large  size,  and  equipped  with  water,  gas  and  elec- 
tricity, will  be  required.  Flush  plate  electric  plugs 
should  be  placed  in  all  tables  and  at  various  conven- 
ient places  around  the  room;  also  a  cut-out  box  with 
attachments  for  direct  and  alternating  current  for  the 
more  elaborate  experiments. 

Balance  cases  should  be  built  into  the  wall,  flush 
with  wall  surface  if  possible,  and  should  consist  of 
a  glass  sliding  door  and  solid  shelf  upon  which  is 
placed  the  balance  weights,  etc.  In  some  institutions 
a  special  room  is  provided,  with  dust-proof  cases,  where 
no  air  currents  will  circulate,  but  the  above  arrange- 
ment will  be  considered  sufficient  for  the  average 
sized  high  school.  The  apparatus  room  is  used  for 
keeping  bulky  apparatus  and  also  for  putting  together 
and  preparing  experiments  ready  for  demonstration, 
either  in  the  laboratory  or  lecture  room.  It  should 


50  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

be  as  large  as  possible  (10x12  feet,  a  minimum  size) 
and  fitted  with  plenty  of  shelving,  cases,  work  coun- 
ter, etc.  A  dark  room  is  required  in  connection  with 
physics  laboratory,  with  sink,  some  shelving  and  elec- 
tric outlets;  also  some  store  room  space. 

SCIENCE  LABORATORY 

Botanical  and  zoological  science  are  taught  in  this 
room,  24x34  feet  being  a  minimum  size.  The  tables 
are  about  54x24  inches  and  30  inches  high,  each  ac- 
commodating two  pupils.  The  tops  of  tables  should 
be  glass,  if  possible,  or  hard  maple  with  water  outlets, 
one  to  every  four  tables.  A  large  sink  is  also  required, 
with  drip  boards  on  either  side. 

An  aquarium,  live  cage,  ice  box  and  cases  of  lock- 
ers will  be  additional  equipment,  the  extent  of  which 
will  vary  with  the  importance  given  to  this  depart- 
ment. 

PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY 

This  subject  may  be  taught  in  the  science  labora- 
tory in  small  high  schools  if  of  sufficient  size.  A  sep- 
arate room,  about  24x36  feet  in  size,  with  delta  table, 
is  provided  for  in  large  buildings. 

LECTURE  ROOM  (Science  Group) 

A  lecture  room  is  necessary  in  conjunction  with 
the  physics  and  chemistry  laboratories  and  if  of  suf- 
ficient size  may  be  used  for  lecture  purposes  for  other 
studies  than  those  two  mentioned.  The  room  must 


SCHOOL    BUILDINGS  51 

be    large    enough    to    comfortably    seat    at    least    fifty, 
and  should  be  large  enough  to  seat  more  than  twice 
that  number  if  the  room  is  intended  to  be  used  in 
connection     with     other     departments     for     scientific 
lectures  with  a  stereopticon.    In  the  latter  case,  raised 
seats  are  arranged  for  as  in  a  "clinic."     The  location 
of  this  room  is  important,  as  it  must  be  accessible  to 
corridors  as  well  as  to  both  laboratories.     The  plat- 
form for  the  seats  are  stepped  up  from  the  demonstra- 
tor's table  6  to  10  inches  per  step,  the  higher  ones 
being  in  the  rear  of  the  room.     Enough  height  will 
be  obtained  under  the  last  few  rows  of  seats  to  pro- 
vide for  considerable  space  underneath,  which  may  be 
used  to  advantage  for  locker  and  storage  purposes  for 
chemistry   or   physics   laboratories,   if   either   directly 
joins  the  lecture  room,     The  best  seats  are  those  of 
the  opera  chair  type,  with  one  wide  arm  that  may  be 
dropped  down  at  the  side  when  not  in  use.     Some 
provision  must  be  made  for  darkening  the  room  at 
times,  which  may  be  accomplished  by  opaque  curtains 
sliding  in  wood  or  metal  groves,  and  operated  by  hand. 
Other  equipment  for  this  room  will  consist  of  a  de- 
monstration   table    similar    to    the    chemistry    bench, 
though   longer   and   provided   with   sink,   gas,   water, 
electricity,  etc.;  also  a  cabinet  for  storing  the  slides 
for  stereopticon,  a  case  similar  to  a  library  card  file 
and  of  sufficient  size  to  take  the  negatives,  being  fre- 
quently used. 

DOMESTIC  SCIENCE  (Cooking) 

The  more  recent  methods  followed  in  this  branch  of 


52  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

instruction  consist  of  a  "U"  shaped  arrangement  of 
tables,  seating  two  pupils  per  table,  and  with  one  or 
more  demonstration  tables  in  the  center  of  the  "U."  A 
gas  main  circles  around  and  supplies  two  stubs  for  each 
table,  used  in  connection  with  portable  gas  plates, 
the  size  of  which  vary  somewhat.  Any  table  ap- 
proximately 30  inches  wide,  five  feet  long  and  32 
inches  wide,  will  do  for  a  unit.  These  tables  are 
built  with  white  maple  tops  and  sliding  shelves,  cup- 
boards and  drawers  underneath,  and  may  be  a  piece 
of  furniture  or  built  to  order. 

Other  equipment  for  this  room  will  consist  of  a 
range,  towel  rack,  ice  box,  sink,  cupboards,  china  closet 
and  pantry  cases.  Lockers  for  each  pupil  must  be  pro- 
vided for  in  some  manner.  A  serving  pantry  and 
dining  room  may  be  incorporated  in  the  larger  schools. 

DOMESTIC  SCIENCE  (Sewing) 

Sewing  is  taught  in  different  ways,  depending 
upon  the  number  of  pupils  taking  up  that  branch  of 
study.  The  tables  may  be  arranged  after  a  fashion 
similar  to  cooking  tables,  or  they  may  be  placed  in  two 
aisles,  leaving  a  center  aisle  for  machines,  one  to  every 
four  pupils.  The  tables  should  be  32  inches  high,  60 
inches  long,  and  from  three  to  four  feet  wide,  fitted 
with  extension  leaves,  sliding  shelves  and  drawers. 
Lockers  will  be  required  for  each  pupil,  and  material 
and  supply  cases.  A  display  wardrobe  with  glass  doors 
will  be  desirable. 


SCHOOL    BUILDINGS  53 

LUNCH  ROOMS 

In  all  high  schools,  lunch  rooms  are  provided  for, 
cafeterias,  etc.,  in  some  instances,  operated  entirely 
or  in  part  as  a  feature  of  the  domestic  science  group 
and  preferably  located  adjoining  or  near  that  depart- 
ment. Provision  is  so  made  that  pupils  may  get  their 
lunches  entire  or  in  part,  at  cost.  It  will  not  be  found 
a  paying  proposition  to  operate  a  cafeteria  excepting 
in  very  large  schools ;  in  fact,  but  few  instances  may  be 
cited  where  expenses  were  covered  for  such  depart- 
ment. 

DRAWING  ROOMS 

High  schools  usually  require  free-hand  and  me- 
chanical drawing  rooms,  and  if  both  subjects  are  taught 
by  the  same  instructor  they  may  be  well  placed  ad- 
jacent. Both  rooms  require  ample  light,  preferably 
from  the  north,  and  skylights  are  desirable  if  not 
necessary,  to  both.  For  this  reason  they  are  often 
placed  on  the  top  floor  of  the  building,  although 
mechanical  drawing  is  often  more  or  less  supplement- 
ary to  shop  work.  If  taught  by  the  latter  instructor 
it  might  be  more  conveniently  placed  near  the  shops, 
which,  of  course,  usually  means  the  ground  floor. 

The  free-hand  drawing  room  should  be  of  sufficient 
size  to  accommodate  its  occupants  and  provided  with 
a  closet  for  models,  easels  and  numerous  other  objects 
to  be  stowed  away.  A  shelf  for  models,  18"  wide 
and  2'6"  from  the  floor,  should  be  secured  to  the 
walls  around  all  sides  of  the  room,  hinged  at  the  top 


54  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

in  sections  so  as  to  be  folded  away  when  not  in  use. 
A  wood  strip  may  be  built  into  the  walls  at  various 
heights,  flush  with  the  plaster,  to  support  objects, 
casts,  etc.,  and  as  a  wall  covering  such  as  burlap, 
monk's  cloth,  etc.,  is  usually  put  on  the  walls  of  the 
drawing  room,  these  strips  are  covered  from  view, 
though  accessible  for  the  purpose  for  which  they  are 
intended. 

The  mechanical-drawing  room  must  have  cases  and 
lockers  for  instruments,  materials,  and  drawing 
boards,  the  size  of  which  may  be  obtained  from  cata- 
logues from  the  manufacturers  furnishing  such  ar- 
ticles. In  addition  to  the  room  proper,  a  closet  for 
supplies  and  a  small  room  for  blue  printing  will  be 
desirable.  Blackboards  are  not  necessary  in  either 
free-hand  or  mechanical  drawing  rooms,  other  than 
a  movable  board  for  demonstration  by  the  instructor. 
Drawing  tables  are  best  when  made  of  the  pedestal 
type,  as  that  variety  is  rigid  and  easy  to  clean.  The 
height  of  such  fixtures  is  regulated  by  a  hand  screw, 
which  is  adjustable,  as  well  as  the  angle  of  the  board 
itself,  which  is  supplemented  with  a  swing  arm  shelf 
for  placing  instruments,  etc. 

In  the  larger  and  better  equipped  drawing  rooms 
each  pupil  will  own  his  own  instruments,  and  a  case 
of  small  lockers  will  be  required  in  which  to  keep 
them  locked  up  when  not  in  use.  A  rack  for  small 
drawing  boards  of  a  uniform  size  is  also  required. 

MANUAL  TRAINING 
The  introduction  of  manual  training  in  many  of 


SCHOOL.    BUILDINGS  55 

our  modern  schools  requires  special  rooms,  the  former 
being  best  located  in  the  basement  of  a  sufficient  ceil- 
ing height  to  allow  for  an  abundance  of  light.  When 
placed  there,  any  noise  or  vibration  which  cannot  be 
eliminated  will  be  reduced  to  a  minimum  and  little  or 
no  inconvenience  on  that  account  will  be  found  in  the 
class  rooms  above.  There  can  be  no  standard  sizes  of 
rooms  for  manual  training,  as  some  schools  make  a 
specialty  of  this  subject,  while  others  elaborate  some- 
where else.  In  general,  the  rooms  should  be  well  light- 
ed and  arranged  conveniently  near,  or  adjoining,  a 
supply  room,  tool  room  (wash  and  locker  room  if 
possible),  and  a  room  for  instruction,  the  latter  often 
at  the  end  of  the  room  proper.  A  room  24x40  feet 
might  be  the  minimum  size. 

In  the  larger  schools,  four  shops  are  considered 
sufficient  for  instruction,  namely,  wood  turning  shop, 
advanced  wood  working  shop,  forge  shop  and  machine 
shop.  They  may  be  grouped  together  or  separated, 
as  the  plan  will  admit,  but  when  grouped  together  a 
more  economic  arrangement  will  generally  be  found 
with  respect  to  wash  rooms,  locker  space,  concentra- 
tion of  noise,  equipment,  etc.  Salt  glazed  brick  or 
glazed  tile  is  a  desirable  material  for  wall  surface,  as 
it  is  not  porous  and  may  be  readily  cleaned. 

The  floors  may  be  of  concrete  or  wood,  the  former 
preferred  for  the  machine  shop. 

The  ceiling  must  be  especially  constructed  if  lathes 
or  other  machinery  be  operated  by  shafting  suspended 
from  them,  otherwise  vibration  or  insufficient  strength 
may  materialize.  Conduits  for  motors  and  machinery 


56  SCHOOL,    BUILDINGS 

must  be  made  before  the  building  is  too  far  completed 
to  properly  place  them  without  disfigurement. 

Manual  training  rooms  should  be  well  lighted,  and 
it  is  a  mistake  to  place  them  on  a  mezzanine  or  excep- 
tionally low  basement,  because  a  nearly  horizontal 
light  is  very  trying  at  a  work  bench.  They  require 
high,  level  lighting  as  much  as  the  class  rooms,  but 
on  account  of  their  secondary  importance  in  compari- 
son of  use,  ideal  conditions  are  not  always  met  with. 

Wood  working  benches  will  vary  in  size,  accord- 
ing to  manufacture,  the  average  sizes  being  from  14" 
to  20"  in  width,  4'-0"  to  6'-0"  in  length,  and  a  height 
of  32"  and  34"  from  top  to  floor.  They  are  equipped 
with  vice  and  flush  cabinet  makers,  tail  vice,  and  may 
open  under  top  or  be  furnished  with  tool  cases  and 
drawers,  as  desired.  Where  two  or  more  sets  of  pupils 
use  the  same  benches,  each  scholar  is  supplied  with  a 
set  of  the  more  elementary  tools,  which  he  keeps  lock- 
ed up,  and  for  which  he  is  held  responsible,  as  to  con- 
dition and  safe  keeping. 

In  the  advanced  wood  working  shop  the  equipment 
will  be  different,  and  the  classes  smaller,  although  as 
great  a  floor  area  as  for  the  wood  turning  shop  will 
be  required.  Large  work  benches '  will  be  used,  and 
possibly  a  band  saw,  planer,. edger,  sticker,  circular 
saw  and  other  machinery  will  be  installed,  most  of 
which  will  be  electric  driven. 

The  forge  and  machine  shops  will  be  equipped  with 
miscellaneous  machinery,  similar  to  that  found  in  any 
complete  machine  shop.  All  shops  will  require  lockers 
for  each  pupil  receiving  instruction  in  that  department. 


SCHOOL    BUILDINGS  57 

GYMNASIUM 

The  gymnasium  may  be  used  for  drills  or  athletic 
pursuits  of  various  kinds,  and  is  located  preferably 
near  the  grade.  The  size  of  classes  will  vary  from  50 
to  100  pupils.  In  some  of  the  Eastern  States  high 
schools  instruct  the  boys  in  military  discipline,  and 
when  such  is  the  case  the  gymnasium  must  be  at  least 
4000  square  feet  in  area.  Whatever  be  the  size,  the 
customary  arrangement  of  this  room  is  such  that  a 
narrow  gallery  or  mezzanine  runs  around  all  sizes  to 
be  utilized  for  a  running  track  or  for  seating  purposes 
during  exhibitions,  etc. 

The  importance  of  a  gymnasium  and  its  equipment 
may  be  determined  by  the  size  of  ground  available, 
amount  of  funds  and  size  of  the  school  itself.  Where 
abundant  ground  area  is  to  be  had,  as  it  often  is  in 
some  sections  of  the  country,  and  the  school  enroll- 
ment is  not  large,  a  gymnasium  may  well  be  dispensed 
with  entirely  and  a  small  separate  building  constructed 
containing  team  rooms,  showers,  etc.  Such  a  building 
may  be  comuscted  with  the  main  building  by  a  covered 
collonade  or  cloister  and  featured  architecturally,  if 
desirable. 

The  cost  of  a  gymnasium  of  suitable  height  (24 
feet)  incorporated  in  the  school  building  itself,  is  con- 
siderable, and  need  only  be  supplied  when  sufficient 
regular  use  warrants  its  provision.  It  might  be  said 
that  no  high  school  (with  comparatively  ample 
grounds)  housing  less  than  500  pupils  need  have  a 
modern  gymnasium  incorporated  with  the  building 


58  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

itself.     In  large  cities  where  the  occupants  can  get 
exercise  in  no  other  way  it  is  indispensable. 

GYMNASIUM   (Additional  Rooms) 

The  management  of  a  modern  gymnasium  and  the 
other  athletic  interests  of  the  school  will  require  an 
instructor  for  whom  a  small  adjoining  room  will  be 
necessary.  Lockers  and  dressing  rooms  are  needed, 
preferably  on  both  sides  of  the  gymnasium  (one  side 
for  girls,  the  other  for  boys),  and  shower  baths.  Each 
pupil  will  have  a  separate  locker  which  will  contain  his 
athletic  wardrobe,  towels,  etc.  These  may  be  of  the 
ventilated  metal  variety,  two  tiers  high  and  operated 
by  keyless  locks. 

GYMNASIUM   (Equipment) 

This  may  be  as  elaborate  as  funds  will  permit  and 
bears  little  relation  to  the  architectural  requirements. 

EQUIPMENT 

Equipment  for  installation  in  a  high  school  build- 
ing may  be  divided  into  two  general  classes.  The  first 
include  steachers'  desks  and  chairs,  tables,  recitation 
seats,  auditorium  sittings,  library  and  administration 
furniture  and  commercial  desks.  The  first  class  dif- 
fers from  the  following  class  chiefly  in  that  the  items 
can  be  purchased  as  regularly  made  "stock"  articles, 
and  require  no  special  design  nor  adaptation.  Such 
equipment  is  generally  arranged  for  by  a  separate  ap- 


SCHOOL    BUILDINGS  59 

propriation  and  has  but  little  to  do  with  the  architec- 
tural features  of  the  building. 

The  second  class  belongs  to  the  building  proper, 
and  consists  of  equipment  which  is  more  permanently 
placed  and  must  be  provided  for,  or  especially  design- 
ed, as  program  clocks,  electric  bell  systems,  intercom- 
municating phones,  hose  reels,  teachers'  cabinets,  lab- 
oratory, demonstration  and  work  tables,  balance  coun- 
ters, wall  cases,  storage  cupboards,  benches,  hoods, 
cabinets,  etc.  These  items  belong  chiefly  to  what 
might  be  called  the  work  rooms  or  laboratories,  and 
are  not  required  in  the  regular  session  and  recitation 
rooms.  Lockers  may  be  included  in  either  class,  pre- 
ferably the  latter,  as  the  height  of  windows  may  effect 
their  location  somewhat.  (See  laboratory  and  shop 
equipment  under  separate  headings.) 

METAL  LOCKERS 

Metal  lockers  may  be  obtained  in  almost  any  size 
or  height  for  single  or  double  tiers.  The  following 
sizes  are  those  that  are  readily  found  in  stock  at  any 
of  the  numerous  concerns  manufacturing  such  articles : 
Single  tiers. 

12x12x36 

12x15x36 

15x18x36 
Double  tier. 

12  x  12  x  60 

12x15x60 

12x15x60 

15x18x60 

18x18x60 


60  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

These  articles  are  well  made,  sanitary  in  every  re- 
spect and  vermin  proof.  No  wood  locker  can  compare 
in  any  way  mith  them  other  than  original  cost,  as  they 
do  not  need  repainting  or  repair  work  for  several  years, 
being  practically  indestructible.  Combination  locks 
are  preferred  to  others. 

HEATING  SYSTEMS 

The  kind  of  heating  apparatus  for  any  school  will 
necessarily  be  determined  by  the  size  of  the  building, 
compactness  of  plan,  climatic  conditions,  fuel  most 
readily  obtained  and  other  elements  affecting  not  only 
its  installation,  but  the  upkeep. 

For  small  schools  of  eight  class  rooms  and  less,  in 
a  mild  climate  where  wood,  coal  or  oil  may  be  readily 
obtained,  good  results  are  procured  by  the  use  of  hot 
air  furnaces,  in  conjunction,  of  course,  with  a  mechani- 
cal ventilating  apparatus  which  forces  the  air,  either 
heated  or  otherwise,  into  the  class  rooms  at  a  uniform 
temperature  and  quantity.  The  advantage  of  such  an 
apparatus  is  cheapness  of  installation  and  upkeep,  as 
no  engineer  need  be  employed  to  run  the  apparatus, 
and  heat  is  quickly  obtained  with  little  cost. 

In  large  buildings  the  same  system  may,  in  some 
few  instances,  be  used  in  mild  climates.  Where  freez- 
ing weather  is  encountered,  it  will  generally  be  found 
more  economical  and  practical  to  use  steam  apparatus 
in  connection  with  the  mechanical  ventilation  for  any 
building  over  eight  class  rooms  in  size,  and  often  in 
those  of  a  lesser  number  of  class  rooms.  A  steam  in- 


SCHOOL    BUILDINGS  61 

stallation  is  more  expensive  to  install  and  operat,  un- 
less in  use  most  of  the  time,  in  which  case  it  will  be 
found  more  economical  than  others. 

The  modern  high  school  building  of  400  pupils  or 
more  will  (in  90%  of  such  buildings)  be  heated  by 
steam,  in  which  case  the  mechanical  ventilation  appa- 
ratus is  used  in  all  the  principal  rooms.  Steam  may 
be  used  direct  in  some  rooms,  as  may  be  advisable,  but 
class  rooms  are  heated  indirect  in  almost  every  in- 
stance. The  upkeep  is  not  so  seriously  considered,  for 
an  engineer  is  an  essential  factor  in  buildings  of  this 
class  to  care  for  dynamos,  motors,  pumping  plants, 
etc.,  which  are  customarily  installed  in  addition  to,  or 
in  connection  with  the  heating  apparatus. 

In  some  of  the  new  high  schools  in  the  larger  cities 
the  mechanical  equipment  is  quite  elaborate  and  en- 
tirely beyond  the  scope  of  this  work.  The  require- 
ments are  extensive  and  require  the  assistance  of  me- 
chanical engineers  familiar  with  such  work. 

HEATING  AND  VENTILATING 

"The  importance  of  adequate  artificial  ventilation 
cannot  be  exaggerated,  and  modern  school  buildings 
are,  as  a  rule,  much  better  equipped  in  this  respect  than 
was  formerly  thought  necessary.  But  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  though  artificial  ventilation  is  always 
an  expensive  luxury,  both  in  first  cost  and  in  opera- 
tion and  maintenance,  it  is,  in  practice,  inseparably 
connected  with  the  problem  of  heating,  though  the 


62  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

two  functions  are  in  theory  wholly  distant  and  inde- 
pendent." 

A  modern  mechanical  heating  and  ventilating  ap- 
paratus consists  of  a  heater,  radiating  surface  and  a 
blower,  which  blows  the  air  over  or  from  the  radiat- 
ing surface  through  ducts  to  the  outlets  of  the  various 
rooms.  From  here,  being  under  pressure,  it  escapes 
through  ducts  to  the  various  rooms  and  thence  up  to 
the  roof. 

The  principle  is  the  same,  no  matter  what  medium 
is  used  to  procure  the  results,  whether  hot  air  or  steam 
be  used,  or  whether  the  heater  is  fed  with  oil,  coal  or 
wood.  There  are  many  different  kinds  of  mechanical 
heating  and  ventilating  apparatus  for  schools,  but  they 
differ  in  detail,  not  in  principle. 

Many  not  informed  on  heating  and  ventilation  are 
confused  by  thinking  that  a  steam  heating  plant  for  a 
school  building  cannot  serve  for  mechanical  ventila- 
tion the  same  as  other  kinds,  but  such  is  not  the  case, 
most  buildings  now  being  arranged  so  that  both  are 
in  operation  from  the  same  plant  at  the  same  time. 

The  heating  apparatus  should,  when  possible,  be 
located  near  the  center  of  the  building,  though  it  is 
not  necessary  from  a  mechanical  standpoint.  When 
so  located,  the  runs  of  pipe  will  be  of  more  equal  length 
in  all  directions  and  the  system  more  noiseless  in  op- 
eration. Long  runs  are  successfully  taken  care  of, 
but  at  greater  expense  and  higher  velocities. 


SCHOOL    BUILDINGS  63 

AMOUNT  OF  AIR  REQUIRED 

The  following  requirements  were  outlined  by  the 
Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts  some  thirty  years 
ago  and  been  practically  standardized  by  the  Fed- 
eral Government  and  eight  States  of  the  Union. 

"(I.)  That  the  heating  apparatus,  properly  man- 
aged, would  heat  all  rooms  to  70  degrees  F.  in  any 
weather ;  (2)  that  with  rooms  at  70  degrees  and  a  dif- 
ference of  not  les  than  40  degrees  between  the  tem- 
perature of  the  outside  air  and  that  of  the  air  entering 
the  room,  the  apparatus  would  supply  thirty  cubic  feet 
of  air  per  minute  for  each  scholar  in  the  room ;  (3) 
that  such  supply  of  air  would  so  circulate  in  the  room 
that  no  uncomfortable  draft  be  felt,  and  that  there 
should  be  no  greater  variation  than  3  degrees  in  any 
part  of  the  room  on  the  same  breathing  plane ;  (4)  that 
an  equal  amount  of  air  to  the  supply  leave  the  room 
through  exhaust  flues;  (5)  that  the  sanitary  arrange- 
ments be  properly  ventilated  and  (6)  that  the  working 
of  the  apparatus  be  guaranteed." 

Although  the  above  outline  is  unquestionably  more 
or  less  antiquated  and  inconsistent  with  the  more  ad- 
vanced theories  and  ideals  of  the  present  day,  especially 
with  refrence  to  the  humidity  and  quality  of  air  sup- 
plied, no  changes  of  importance  have  been  adopted  to 
any  extent. 

The  fundamental  principles  underlying  the  require- 
ments for  the  ventilating  of  all  class  rooms  require  30 
cubic  feet  (or  a  trifle  under  one  metre  cube)  of  fresh 
air  per  minute  for  each  pupil,  up  to  the  maximum  num- 


64  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

ber  allowed  for  the  room  in  question;  while  the  heat- 
ing plant  should  be  adequate  to  raise  the  temperatures 
of  all  rooms,  exposed  or  otherwise,  to  70  degrees 
Fahrenheit  in  the  coldest  weather  that  might  occur. 

The  average  school  room  being  24  x  32  feet  in  size, 
with  a  ceiling  height  of  \2y2  feet,  will  contain  9800 
(approximately  10,000  cubic  feet),  which  air  must  be 
changed  from  six  to  ten  times  per  hour,  according  to 
opinions  of  heating  engineers.  Six  changes  represent- 
ing a  minimum  and  ten  changes  being  considered  as 
being  ample  for  ventilation  of  the  highest  standard. 
Assuming  the  average  number  of  changes  of  air  per 
hour,  80,000  cubic  feet  per  hour  would  be  required  for 
such  a  room.  Precisely  the  same  quantities  may  be  ar- 
rived at  by  assuming  45  pupils  occupying  a  standard 
room,  each  of  whom  is  to  be  provided  with  30  cubic 
feet  per  minute,  30x45x60  would  equal  81,000,  or 
the  number  of  cubic  feet  per  hour.  These  conditions 
apply  to  class  rooms,  and  so  far  most  engineers  will 
check;  however,  assembly  halls,  corridors  and  main 
rooms  are  heated  and  ventilated  by  a  different  for- 
mulae, in  some  cases  omitting  part  of  the  heat,  but  not 
diminishing  the  ventilation,  or  a  combination  of  the 
two. 

The  assembly  hall  may  be  heated  by  direct  radia- 
tion (usually  steam  coils  or  radiators)  if  it  has  plenty 
of  large  windows,  doors,  etc.,  to  assist  ventilation,  in 
addition  to  more  or  less  forced  ventilation,  or  it  may 
be  heated  and  ventilated  by  tempered  air  as  for  class 
rooms.  The  use  of  the  room  generally  determines  the 
system  to  be  used  for  assembly  halls,  which  are  fre- 


SCHOOL,    BUILDINGS  65 

quently  used  for  large  gatherings  and  will  require  little 
heat  after  once  being  occupied,  but  a  great  amount  of 
ventilation. 

Foot  warmers  are  located  in  the  entrance  corridors 
of  most  schools,  and  sufficient  heat  is  given  forth  from 
them,  if  they  are  properly  placed  and  of  ample  radia- 
tion, to  keep  the  corridors  sufficiently  warm.  They 
consist  of  a  register  face,  or  similar  grating  in  the 
floor,  through  which  the  heat  passes.  In  some  cases 
they  are  fed  by  tempered  and  fresh  air  from  the  plenum 
chamber,  and  in  other  arrangements  for  steam  heat 
they  consist  of  a  set  of  steam  coils  through  which  air 
passes  out  of  and  into  the  corridors. 

HEAT  VENTILATING  DUCTS 

The  location  of  heating  and  ventilation  stack  and 
groups  of  flues  are  not  always  placed  most  theoreti- 
cally correct  in  the  room,  due  to  economic  reasons 
that  govern  them,  to  a  certain  extent.  Flues  or  ducts 
cannot  .come  up  in  a  room  indiscriminately,  and  care 
is  taken  to  have  them  adjacent  to  one  another,  con- 
cealed, leaving  the  wall  flush  and  without  projection. 
This  involves  considerable  ingenuity  of  the  architect's 
plan  and  utter  disregard  to  them  would  seriously  dis- 
figure an  otherwise  suitable  floor  plan.  They  must  be 
so  placed  as  to  insure  a  complete  circulation  of  air  and 
heat  throughout  the  room,  which  means  that  the  outlet 
is  best  placed  on  the  same  side  of  the  room  as  the  in- 
let, the  heated  air  being  blown  into  the  room  under 
pressure  and  scattering  in  different  directions,  to  be 


66  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

picked  up  finally  near  where  it  originally  entered.  The 
heat  outlets,  or  rather  "heat  inlets  to  room,"  are  of 
various  sizes  up  to  24"x30"  in  area  for  a  standard 
class  room  and  located  7'-6"  above  the  floor.  The 
face  of  heat  inlets  consists  of  a  register  face  finished 
to  match  the  hardware,  or  simply  an  iron  wire  grating. 
The  vent  flues  from  the  sanitaries  should  be  carried 
up  separately  to  the  tops  of  the  main  ventilators  and 
should  be  so  located  that  the  horizontal  runs,  particu- 
larly from  the  fixtures  in  the  basement,  are  as  short 
as  possible.  In  some  instances  these  vents  are  ac- 
celerated by  a  small  electric  motor-driven  fan,  operat- 
ed independently  from  the  main  ventilating  system. 

LOCATION  OF  FAN,  FRESH  AIR  INLET,  ETC. 

The  school  house  being  ordinary  symmetrical,  it  is 
well  to  place  the  fan  so  that  the  discharge  will  lie 
along  the  axis  of  the  building,  and  thus  deliver  an 
equal  quantity  of  air  in  either  direction.  The  primary 
chamber,  which  naturally  adjoins  the  fan  room,  ought 
to  have  the  fresh  air  chamber  inlet  so  located  above 
ground  that  dust,  leaves,  etc.,  cannot  be  drawn  in.  It 
is  preferable  to  have  the  intake  over  a  grass  plot  and 
at  the  rear  of  the  building  if  to  avoid  a  dusty  street. 
In  any  case,  the  architect  will,  of  course,  avoid  placing 
it  near  the  toilet  vent  outlets  or  the  chimney. 

MAIN  DUCTS 

The  horizontal  galvanized  ducts  radiating  from  the 
fan  in  connection  with  the  plenum  system  are  often 


SCHOOL    BUILDINGS  67 

carried  on  the  basement  ceiling,  which  is  furred  down 
to  conceal  them  and  plastered.  Another  method  is  to 
run  them  beneath  the  basement  floor,  making  them  of 
brick  or  concrete  and  eliminating  the  furred  ceilings, 
the  former  being  practiced  where  plenty  of  ceiling 
height  is  available  in  the  basement  corridor,  and  the 
latter  if  to  the  contrary. 

When  built  of  masonry,  care  must  be  taken  to  have 
the  joints  on  the  inside  laid  as  smooth  as  possible  and 
the  proper  formulae  used  in  figuring,  due  to  loss  by 
friction,  which  is  bound  to  be  in  evidence.  Galvanized 
iron  ducts  are  used  almost  exclusively  for  the  convey- 
ance of  air  and  all  changes  of  direction  made  with 
easy  curves. 

AIR  WASHER 

An  air  washer  is  used  with  heating  plants  for  large 
installations,  or  in  cities  where  a  considerable  amount 
of  soot,  dust,  etc.,  is  encountered.  The  apparatus  con- 
sists of  a  fine  spraying  device  through  which  all  the 
air  is  passed  and  which  catches  solid  matters  of  any 
sort.  Where  the  air  intake  is  high  enough  up  from 
the  ground,  and  the  surrounding  air  is  clean  and  fresh, 
no  air  washer  is  necessary,  and  its  use  may  be  well 
dispensed  with,  as  it  consumes  considerable  water,  the 
principal  cost  of  its  upkeep. 

SANITATION 

(See  toilet  rooms  for  number  of  fixtures. 
Modern    fixtures    are    utilized    almost    exclusively 


68  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

now  in  school  buildings,  and  no  other  types  need  be 
mentioned  here  other  than  those,  the  unsanitary  range 
closets  being  used  only  in  the  cheapest  of  buildings. 
Modern  fixtures  consist  of  individual  fixtures — in  some 
cases  more  properly  termed  individual  units  in  bat- 
teries—and in  either  case  the  bowls  are  white  vitreous 
or  semi-china  glazed  ware. 

For  separate  fixtures,  a  wash-down  bowl  with 
syphon  action  or  jet  will  be  found  adequate,  and  if  a 
sufficient  water  surface  is  provided  for,  proper  vent 
and  depth  of  seal  obtained,  either  type  will  give  satis- 
faction. The  operation  of  fixture  may  be  by  pull 
(chain  or  rod),  valve  or  seat  action,  the  latter  being 
used  almost  exclusively  as  it  insures  a  flush  automa- 
tically and  prevents  a  minimum  number  of  exposed 
parts  to  be  tampered  with.  There  are  a  great  number 
of  different  manufacturers  of  plumbing  fixtures,  each 
putting  on  the  market  practically  the  same  products  at 
practically  the  same  prices,  although  it  is  commonly 
expressed  that  "So  and  So's"  fixtures  are  the  best.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  almost  any  manufacturer  of  plumbing 
fixtures  can  give  you  any  type  of  fixture  at  about  the 
same  cost  as  manufactured  by  others.  The  only  dif- 
ference will  be  found  in  details  that  only  one  of  ex- 
perience can  determine.  The  average  school  board 
can  well  leave  the  selection  of  plumbing  fixtures  to 
the  architect,  provided  they  insist  on  the  above  re- 
quirements, and  that  the  fixtures  specified  are  event- 
ually installed. 

Fixtures  are  usually  arranged  in  groups,  back  to 
back,  with  a  utility  chamber  between,  of  24"  in  width, 


SCHOOL    BUILDINGS  69 

in  which  the  tank  or  tanks,  pipes,  etc.,  are  placed,  and 
in  some  cases  this  space  is  used  as  a  vent. 

Stall  partitions  can  be  of  any  size  and  any  material 
— wood,  slate,  plaster,  composition  or  marble.  A  good 
material  and  a  cheap  one  is  being  extensively  used, 
consisting  of  a  metal  frame  reinforced  with  light  iron 
channels,  covered  with  metal  lath  and  plastered,  the 
exposed  sides  being  finished  with  Keene's  cement. 
This  makes  a  partition  2"  in  thickness,  absolutely  rigid, 
and  when  painted  as  non-porous  and  sanitary  as  any 
other  material  except  metal  or  marble. 

The  partitions  are  set  about  12"  above  the  floor 
and  extend  to  5'-6"  except  at  the  back  where  partition 
runs  full  height  (6'-6")  from  the  floor  and  is  roofed  over 
the  utility  chamber.  Doors  may  be  used  or  not,  as  desir- 
ed, although  it  is  customary  to  omit  them  in  grammar 
schools.  When  used  they  are  short  doors  hung  on 
spring  butts  and  rarely  provided  with  locks. 

Urinals  for  grammar  schools  are  still  unsanitary 
fixtures,  and  probably  always  will  be,  for  while  modern 
fixtures  have  been  improved  upon  in  every  conceivable 
way,  carelessness  on  the  part  of  the  user  cannot  be 
overcome  in  a  public  building.  Care  should  be  taken 
that  the  back  is  of  non-porous  material,  that  it  is  well 
flushed  at  all  times,  that  the  foot  trough  is  enameled 
ware  and  well  flushed,  trapped  and  ventilated.  The 
fixture  may  have  partitions  or  not,  and  if  so,  they  must 
also  be  of  non-porous  material.  Separate  urinals  with 
automatic  flush  are  usually  installed  in  high  schools, 
and  there  are  manufactured  at  the  present  time  white 
porcelain  units—back,  sides  and  troughs,  with  a  min- 


70  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

imum  number  of  parts — that  are  theoretically  perfect 
as  far  as  manufacture  is  concerned,  but  which  are  too 
expensive  and  not  far  enough  in  advance  over  the  sepa- 
rate lip  urinal  to  warrant  their  use  in  public  schools. 

DRINKING  FOUNTAINS 

Drinking  fountains  are  now  manufactured  of  the 
porcelain  or  metal  "bubbling  cup"  pattern,  either  sepa- 
rate fixtures  with  a  porcelain  pedestal  or  units  of  two 
or  more,  arranged  over  a  porcelain  sink  with  a  high 
back.  Drinking  cups  are  of  the  dark  ages,  and  the  old 
type  is  not  to  be  considered ;  in  fact,  they  are  prohibited 
by  law  in  the  States  of  Massachusetts,  Wisconsin, 
Illinois,  Kansas  and  Oaklahoma. 

SHOWERS 

Showers  for  gymnasiums  or  play  rooms  may  be  as 
elaborate  as  desired.  The  simplest  form  would  be 
merely  a  spray  and  drain  in  the  floor,  screened  off  from 
the  dressing  room,  and  which  would  cost  practically 
nothing;  both  spray  and  pipe  galvanized.  More  satis- 
factory fixtures  would  be  stalls  3'-0"  x  3'-0"  in  size, 
with  non-porous  sides  and  back,  with  sprays  and  mix- 
ing chamber  (hot  water  should  be  provided  for)  and 
dressing  rooms,  either  one  room  with  bench  or  separate 
stalls.  Marble  is  the  most  attractive  material  to  use 
for  stalls,  sides  and  floors,  but  composition  will  be 
found  suitable  and  much  cheaper.  The  size  of  the 
school  should  determine  the  elaborateness  of  its  fit- 
tings as  far  as  showers  are  concerned,  for  if  hot  water 


SCHOOL    BUILDINGS  71 

is  supplied,  provision  for  it  will  be  much  cheaper  in 
comparison  in  a  large  school  than  in  a  small  one.  Hot 
water  is  supplied  by  a  tank  with  steam  coils,  a  simple 
proposition  where  steam  is  used  in  other  parts  of  the 
building.  Otherwise,  a  separate  apparatus  may  be 
installed,  automatic  and  using  gas  as  a  fuel. 

STAND  PIPES 

In  a  fire-proof  building  these  are  not  necessary,  as 
what  furniture,  papers,  etc.,  that  might  take  fire  may 
be  easily  extinguished  without  the  use  of  water.  Where 
wood  is  used  in  any  part  of  the  construction  or  trim, 
stand  pipes  are  run  from  basement  up  through  the 
roof  at  such  places  as  may  readily  lend  themselves 
to  a  60-foot  run  of  fire  hose.  The  stand  pipes  should 
be  at  least  2"  in  diameter,  with  \y2"  outlets  at  each 
floor  and  roof.  Hose  reels  are  made  in  many  differ- 
ent patterns  and  can  be  set  in  the  wall  and  covered 
with  a  glass  case  flush  with  the  plaster.  In  any  case 
the  hose  should  be  overhauled  at  least  once  a  year,  as 
it  is  likely  to  crack  or  rot  where  folded. 

ELECTRIC  LIGHTING 

Some  school  buildings  will  require  very  little  arti- 
ficial light  unless  utilized  for  night  school.  Buildings 
having  assembly  halls  will  require  more  or  less  elab- 
orate lighting,  including  corridors,  entrance  and  toilet 
rooms. 

It  is  well  to  provide  ample  wiring  for  all  rooms, 
which,  if  not  utilized,  will  be  in  place  when  desired 


72  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

without  having  to  be  installed  at  a  later  date  and  at  a 
much  greater  cost  and  often  with  considerable  disfig- 
urement to  wall  and  ceiling  surfaces. 

The  class  room  ceiling  lights  are  usually  of  the 
chandelier  type,  very  plain  and  substantial,  as  they 
are  difficult  to  clean  and  unsightly  when  otherwise. 
Holyphane  reflectors  are  used,  the  fixtures  operated  by 
flush-plate  switch.  Indirect  lighting  is  very  desirable 
in  class  rooms,  as  no  fixtures  are  required  from  the 
ceiling.  However,  it  is  quite  expensive,  requiring  more 
light  equivalent. 

Corridor  lights  may  be  enclosed  in  an  opalescent 
glass  half-dome,  set  against  the  ceiling.  These  fixtures 
will  require  no  cleaning  whatever,  and  are  of  decidedly 
neat  appearance. 

The  assembly  hall  may  have  side  brackets  and  in- 
direct lighting  around  the  ceiling  treatment,  eliminat- 
ing suspended  fixtures  entirely.  The  stage  may  have 
platform  and  proscenium  lights,  which  are  also  con- 
cealed and  operated  from  a  cut-out  box  located  in  an 
adjoining  dressing  room.  All  fixtures  in  this  room 
should  be  controlled  by  cut-out  switch,  as  there  may 
be  times  when  it  is  desirable  to  cut  out  all  lights,  for 
stereopticon,  moving  picture  apparatus,  etc. 

ELECTRIC  WIRING 

In  connection  with  wiring  for  lights,  additional 
wiring  is  required  for  installation  to  motor  for  ventil- 
ating apparatus,  stereopticon  or  similar  apparatus  for 
assembly  hall  and  science  lecture  room,  or  both, 


SCHOOL    BUILDINGS  73 

physics  laboratory,  for  motors  in  shops  and  for  other 
special  purposes.  The  location  of  cut-out  boxes, 
panel  boards,  switches,  arrangement  of  wiring,  etc., 
will  require  the  assistance  of  an  engineer  and  detail  of 
much  importance,  but  out  of  the  scope  of  this  work. 

TELEPHONES 

Inter-communicating  telephones  are  installed  in  all 
modern  buildings,  and  their  cost  is  an  incredibly  small 
item.  The  instruments  for  the  teachers  are  placed  on 
the  wall  of  the  class  rooms,  and  those  in  the  principal's 
offices  are  of  the  desk  pattern.  Each  instrument  has 
a  push  button  box  with  buttons  for  all  stations,  so  that 
communication  may  be  had  direct  to  any  station  with- 
out the  use  of  an  exchange  or  an  operator  of  any  kind. 
The  entire  apparatus  may  be  connected  to  local  city 
service  with  small  additional  cost. 

PROGRAM  CLOCKS 

Program  clocks  are  operated  by  electricity,  com- 
pressed air,  weights  or  springs,  any  of  which  are  made 
self-winding,  and  the  ordinary  automatic  apparatus 
consists  of  a  Master's  clock  with  secondary  clocks  for 
as  many  rooms  as  is  desired,  which,  in  addition  to  fur- 
nishing time  instruments  for  school  purposes,  operates 
one  or  more  programs  by  ringing  bells  in  the  corri- 
dors, shops,  etc.,  at  whatever  time  they  may  be  set  for. 
One  program  is  usually  enough,  but  additional  ones 
may  be  added  to  any  of  the  apparatus  with  little  cost. 
By  using  a  modern  program  clock,  each  class  room 


74  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

may  have  a  neat  flush  plate  dust-proof  dial  of  the  same 
pattern,  and  no  conflict  can  occur  from  variation  in 
time  in  different  parts  of  the  building.  Winding  is 
entirely  eliminated;  in  fact  the  apparatus  has  been 
sufficiently  demonstrated  practical  and  of  reasonable 
enough  cost  of  installation  for  any  modern  school. 

VACUUM  CLEANING  APPARATUS 

The  vacuum  cleaning  apparatus  has  made  such 
rapid  strides  in  its  mechanical  efficiency  that  it  may 
be  safely  said  that  no  modern  school  building  should 
be  constructed  without  at  least  making  provision  for 
piping  during  construction.  This  cost  is  insignificant 
in  amount  and  will  eliminate  a  later  installation  with 
exposed  piping,  and  more  or  less  patching  of  ceiling, 
etc. 

An  apparatus  of  appropriate  design,  properly  in- 
stalled, affords  a  practical  method  of  dustless  school 
cleaning,  a  method  that  by  a  mechanical  suction  act- 
ually picks  up  the  dust  and  dirt  from  the  floors,  fur- 
niture, chalk  rails,  walls,  etc.,  and  deposits  in  suitable 
receptacles. 

Portable  machines  are  entirely  inadequate  for  a 
school  building,  except  in  buildings  of  less  than  four 
rooms,  where  their  use  may  or  may  not  be  considered 
satisfactory,  therefore  their  use  need  not  be  discussed 
in  detail  here. 

On  each  floor  the  piping  has  one  or  more  outlets  to 
which  flexible  hose  can  be  attached,  of  sufficient 
length  to  reach  all  parts  of  rooms  to  be  cleaned;  the 
tool  and  handle  vary,  according  to  the  character  of 


SCHOOL    BUILDINGS  75 

cleaning  to  be  done,  whether  floor,  wall,  ceiling,  fur- 
niture, etc. 

SIZE  OF  PLANT 

Vacuum  cleaners  of  the  stationary  type  vary  in 
size  from  the  smallest  or  "one-sweeper"  plants  to  as 
large  a  plant  as  may  be  necessary  to  permit  the  clean- 
ing of  a  large  building  by  a  force  of  several  janitors. 
The  usual  term  describing  size  is  "one-sweeper,"  "four- 
sweeper"  or  "twelve-sweeper,"  according  to  the  num- 
ber of  floor  brushes  that  can  be  simultaneously  op- 
erated. 

Few  school  buildings  except  in  the  larger  cities, 
will  require  more  than  a  one-sweeper  or  possibly  a 
two-sweeper  plant,  and  no  attempt  will  be  made  in 
this  article  to  consider  larger  units,  since  they  assume 
the  proportions  of  engineering  problems,  and  no  school 
board  should  attempt  their  installation  without  the 
assistance  of  competent  consulting  engineers. 

Permanent  piping  should  be  installed,  concealed  in 
partitions,  taking  care  that  outlets  and  cleanout  open- 
ings are  extended  through  partitions,  and  may  be  of 
the  ordinary  commercial  iron  or  steel  pipe  arranged, 
so  far  as  possible,  in  vertical  risers  with  a  minimum 
of  horizontal  runs. 

It  is  necessary  to  have  outlets  in  every  school  room, 
and  the  location  in  corridors  should  be  selected  with 
reference  to  school  room  doors. 

Outlets  or  hose  connections  are  flush  with  base- 
board and  are  nickle  or  finished  to  correspond  with 
other  furnishings. 


76  SCHOOL,    BUILDINGS 

HOSE 

Fifty  feet  of  hose  is  a  convenient  length  and 
seventy-five  feet  is  not  impossible.  The  hose  may  be 
of  rubber  or  metal  covered,  and  hose  smaller  than  one 
inch,  inside  diameter,  is  not  practical,  larger  than  one 
and  one-half  inch  is  too  cumbersome.  Whatever  the 
variety  is,  it  should  come  in  twenty-five-foot  lengths 
and  have  convenient  air-tight  couplings. 

TOOLS  (VACUUM  CLEANING) 

In  some  school  rooms,  with  the  ordinary  type  of 
school  desk  attached  to  the  floor  at  four  points,  the 
use  of  vacuum  cleaner  tools  is  attended  with  some  dif- 
ficulty, therefore,  especially  designed  shapes  are  re- 
quired to  work  around  desk  legs.  Sanitary  furniture 
with  single  pedestal  desks  and  seats,  is  ideal  for 
vacuum  cleaning,  and  larger  cities  are  gradually 
adopting  this  type  of  seat.  The  particular  type  of  tool 
to  use  depends  on  the  surface  to  be  cleaned.  For 
smooth,  bare  floors,  tools  are  less  efficient  than  on 
comparatively  rough  surface.  In  general,  they  are 
from  ten  to  eighteen  inches  long,  and  perhaps  three 
inches  wide.  Felt  pads  or  rows  of  bristles  serve  to 
prevent  too  great  an  admission  of  air  and  to  localize 
this  admission  of  air  where  the  inrush  will  draw  up 
the  dirt  and  dust.  For  walls  and  chalk  trays,  a  circu- 
lar brush  with  long  bristles  and  leather  cuff  is  ad- 
visable. 


SCHOOL    BUILDINGS  77 

SCHOOL  LAWS   (Building,  Etc.) 

In  Germany,  France  and  England,  all  public  in- 
struction is  carried  on  in  buildings  very  exact  in  re- 
quirements, construction  and  convenience,  and  in  the 
United  States  some  States  have  definite  laws  in  this 
respect,  patterned  more  or  less  after  the  Massachusetts 
State  law,  which  is  a  standard  so  far  in  this  country. 
The  time  is  not  far  distant  when  all  States  will  have 
laws  and  regulations  which  will  be  practically  uni- 
form in  each,  not  only  with  reference  to  the  construc- 
tion, arrangement,  sanitation,  etc.,  of  school  buildings, 
but  in  the  matter  of  method  of  selecting  the  architects' 
competitions,  etc.  The  principles  of  school  planning 
are  comparatively  uniform  for  all  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, varying  only  in  detail,  due  to  climatic  conditions 
and  the  public's  standard  of  ideals.  For  those  inter- 
ested, reference  may  be  had  to  the  school  laws  of 
Massachusetts,  New  Jersey,  Connecticut,  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Utah, 
Vermont,  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  Ohio,  Kansas,  New 
Hampshire  and  Minnesota. 

Other  States  have  laws  relating  to  fire-escapes  and 
minor  details  with  reference  to  school  buildings,  but 
no  complete  or  modern  rules  and  regulations. 

COMPETITIONS 

Competitions  are  conducted  by  private  and  munici- 
pal bodies  for  the  supposed  election  of  an  architect, 
who,  by  the  terms  of  such  competition,  successfully 
demonstrates  that  he  is  more  fitted  for  the  purpose  of 


78  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

preparing  plans  and  specifications  of  suitable  design, 
than  his  fellow  contestants.  In  many  communities 
competitors  are  required  by  law  or  custom,  and  it  is 
quite  likely  that  they  will  continue  to  be  utilized  for 
such  a  purpose  for  some  time  to  come,  with,  fortunate- 
ly, many  of  the  unsatisfactory  conditions  eliminated 
that  are  now  incorporated,  and  more  sane  ones  sub- 
stituted. 

Any  public  community  supporting  a  new  building 
proposition  is  entitled  to  the  most  artistic  and  skillful 
conception  of  such  improvement. 

When  a  new  building  is  needed,  it  is  the  duty  of 
those  in  charge  to  select  an  architect  either  by  com- 
petition or  otherwise,  who  is  best  fitted  for  the  pur- 
pose. If,  by  competition,  the  program  for  such  must 
be  drawn  up  in  such  a  manner  as  to  place  all  compet- 
ing architects  on  an  equal  basis,  and  a  selection  made 
under  careful  advisement  by  some  competent  and  dis- 
interested architect  of  sufficient  professional  standing 
as  to  be  beyond  public  criticism.  The  municipal  laws 
in  some  localities  require  that  the  members  of  the 
governing  body  (supervisors,  school  trustees,  etc.,) 
must  select  the  architect,  and  such  being  the  case,  they 
have  the  opportunity  of  securing  as  much  professional 
advisement  as  they  may  desire. 

Successful  men  in  any  vocation  of  life  are  capable 
to  a  certain  extent  of  handling  the  problems  that  arise 
in  their  own  professions  and  business,  and  should 
readily  recognize  a  skilled  architect's  ability  to  per- 
form his  services  in  a  professional  manner  to  the  extent 
that,  assuming  a  competition  has  been  conducted  in  a 


SCHOOL,  BUILDINGS'  79 

proper  manner  in  the  preparation  of  preliminary  plans, 
a  selection  should  be  made  only  under  the  careful 
advisement  of  a  consulting  architect  who  has  sufficient 
knowledge  at  his  disposal  to  show  how  and  why  one 
or  more  plans,  etc.,  are  best  suited  to  their  needs,  and 
conforming  strictly  to  the  program  as  called  for. 

In  no  other  way  does  a  so-called  composition  fulfill 
the  end  for  which  it  was  intended,  namely,  to  select 
the  architect  most  fitted  for  the  work  at  hand,  for, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  commissions  of  all  reliable 
architects  is  the  same,  no  other  qualification  is  intended 
in  a  competition. 

No  architect  of  good  standing  will  enter  into  a 
competition  which  is  not  conducted  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  allow  him  to  compete  on  an  equal  basis  for  selec- 
tion as  that  of  his  contemporaries,  and  if  the  architects 
do  not  compete  on  an  equal  basis,  time  and  money  is 
wasted  by  both  municipality  and  themselves,  and  a 
better  way  of  procedure  would  be  to  select  him  with- 
out competition. 

When  a  board  cannot  make  a  selection  outright  of 
an  architect  for  various  reasons,  and  decides  that  a 
competition  is  necessary,  they  may  dodge  absolute 
criticism  by  conducting  it  in  the  most  approved  man- 
ner. 

The  American  Institute  of  Architects  supplies 
"Public  Information,"  on  the  conduct  and  arrangement 
of  competitons,  which,  if  followed,  will  insure  a  most 
fair  method  of  procedure  for  the  municipality  and  one 
under  which  no  architect  in  good  standing  will  hesitate 
to  compete  under. 


80  SCHOOL    BUILDINGS 

Our  National  Government,  and  all  of  the  large 
cities,  conduct  competitions  after  the  outline  as  recom- 
mended by  the  American  Institute  of  Architects,  and 
it  is  only  in  some  of  the  remote  districts  where  com- 
petitions occur  very  rarely  that  they  are  conducted 
otherwise,  and  then  from  lack  of  proper  information 
on  such  subjects. 

The  American  Institute  of  Architects  do  not  assume 
to  dictate  the  conduct  of  competitions,  but  aim  only 
to  assist  by  advising  the  adoption  of  such  methods  as 
long  experience  has  proven  to  be  just  and  wise;  in 
brief,  they  insist  in  general  on  only  two  requirements. 
First,  that  competing  architects  shall  be  given  the  op- 
portunity to  compete  on  an  equal  basis ;  second,  that 
the  selecting  body  have  professional  advisement  of 
recognized  standing  in  making  the  selection.  They 
do  not  discriminate  against  any  individual,  whether 
he  be  a  member  of  their  institution  or  otherwise,  and 
any  public  body  or  individual  may  obtain,  gratis, 
printed  information  desired  on  "Competitions,"  by 
mere  request  from  "The  American  Institute  of  Archi- 
tects," Washington,  D.  C. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


AIR — Amount  Required  Per  Pupil,  ventilation  63 

Velocity  Entering  Class-Eooms  63 

Washer    67 

INLETS — Location   —  66 

APPARATUS  BOOMS  49 

ARCHITECTS — General  Discussion  12 

Method  of   Selection   77 

ASSEMBLY  HALLS — Grammar  Schools  17 

High  Schools  17 

Location    18 

Seating  Capacity,  per  sq.  ft.  Area  20 

Lighting   19 

Exits  and  Galleries  19 

B 

BALANCE  ROOM  49 

BATHS — Shower  70 

BIOLOGICAL  LABORATORY  50 

BLACKBOARDS  32 

Kind  of  and  Size  33 

Trimmings    34 

BOTANICAL  LABORATORY  50 

BUILDING — Site   13 

Exposure  14 

Classification    10 

Frame   7 

Semi-Fireproof    7 

Fireproof    8 

BUSINESS  DEPARTMENT  44 

C 

CAFETERIA — (See  Lunch  Rooms)    53 

CEILINGS — Height  of 37 

Color  (See  Tinting  of  Walls)   40 

CHALK  TROUGH  34 

CHEMISTRY — Laboratory   45 

Tables  and  Equipment 47-48 

Lecture  Boom  .,„.,.,„.. ...,,.,.,„,..„.,..., ....T , „,...,„„  50 


ii  INDEX  (Continued) 

Page. 

CLASS  EOOMS — Size  of  25 

Method  of  Lighting  27 

Grammar  Schools 27 

High    Schools    43-44 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  BUILDINGS  10 

COAT  BACKS  31 

COAT  KOOMS — (See  Wardrobes)   30-42 

COMMERCIAL  DEPARTMENT 44 

COMPOSITION  FLOORS  35 

COMPETITIONS    77 

CONCRETE  BUILDINGS  9 

COOKING  BOOM — (See  Domestic  Science)    51 

CORRIDORS  23 

Location    24 

Size    24 

COST  OF  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS  11 

D 

DARK  BOOMS  50 

DECORATION — (See  Tinting  of  Walls)  40 

DEMONSTRATION  TABLES  49 

DOMESTIC  SCIENCE  38 

Grammar   Schools   38 

High  Schools  51 

Cooking 51 

Sewing    52 

DOORS  19-26-35 

DRAWING  BOOMS — Free  Hand  53 

Mechanical    54 

DRINKING  FOUNTAINS   70 

DUCTS — Heating  and  Ventilation  65-66 

E 

ELECTRIC  LIGHTING  71 

ELECTRIC  WIRING  72 

EQUIPMENT — In     General  58 

EXITS  TO  ASSEMBLY  HALLS  19 

EXPOSURE  OF  CLASS  BOOMS  14 

F 

FAN  BOOM  66 

FIREPROOF  BUILDINGS   7 

FIRE  PROTECTION   

FIRE  ESCAPES  ..                                   7 


INDEX  (Continued)  iii 

Page. 

FLOORS    24-35-36 

FOOT  WARMERS  25-65 

FRAME   BUILDINGS    7 

FURNACES     60 

Q 

GALLERIES  OR  BALCONIES  FOR  ASSEMBLY  HALLS _ 24 

GROUNDS  13 

GYMNASIUM — Grammar  Schools  40 

High  Schools  57 

H 

HAND   BAILS    22 

HEATING  AND  VENTILATION  60-61 

HEIGHT  OF  SCHOOL  BOOMS  25 

HIGH  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS — General  Discussion 41 

HOSE  BEELS  71 

I 

INDIRECT  HEATING  64 

INLETS — Location  66 

J 
JANITOR'S  BOOM  37 

K 

KINDERGARTEN  37 

KITCHEN 

L 

LABORATORIES — Chemistry  45 

Physics  49 

Science  50 

LANDINGS   21 

LAWS — Beferring  to  Bequirements  for  School  Buildings 77 

LIGHTING — Direction,  Quantity,  etc.,  for  Class  Boom 27-30-44 

Direction,  Quantity,  etc.,  for  Assembly  Hall  22 

(See  Stairways  and  Corridors) 

LOCKERS   42-59 

LUNCH  BOOMS  33 


iv  INDEX  (Continued) 

M  Page. 

MANUAL  TRAINING — Grammar  Schools  39 

High  Schools  34 

MAPLE   FLOORS   

MECHANICAL  TRAINING  54 

MECHANICAL  DRAWING  54 

N 

NUMBER  OF  PUPILS  PER  CLASS  EOOM  25 

NUMBER  OP  PUPILS  PER  SQ.  FT.  ASSEMBLY  HALL  20 

O 

OUTLETS — Vent     66 

P 

PAINTING — (See  Tinting  of  Walls)    40 

PHYSICS — Laboratory    49 

Tables  and  Equipment  48 

Lecture  Boom  50 

PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  LABORATORY  50 

PLANNING     15 

PLAY  BOOMS  38 

PLUMBING — (See   Sanitation)    67 

PRINCIPAL'S  OFFICE  34 

PRINCIPLES  OF  VENTILATION  63 

PROGRAM  CLOCKS  73 

B 

BISERS  OF  STAIRS  —. 21 

8 

SANITATION    67 

SCHOOL  BOOMS — Size  of  Grammar  Schools  27 

Size  of  High  Schools  43-44 

SCIENCE — Lecture  Boom  50 

Laboratory   50 

SEATS— Assembly   Hall  

SEWING  BOOM  52 

SHOPS— (See  Manual  Training)   „ 39-54 

SHOWER   BATHS    

SITE  FOR  BUILDING  13 


INDEX  (Continued)  v 

Page. 

SLATE  BLACKBOARDS    32 

SPECIAL    ROOMS    37 

STAIRWAYS — Size   of   21 

Location    22 

Lighting — Number   of,   etc,    22 

STALL  PARTITIONS  FOR  TOILETS  67 

STAND  PIPES  71 

STORE   ROOMS    48 

STUDY  HALLS   43 

T 

TEACHERS'  CLOSET  26 

TEACHERS'   ROOM   34 

TOILET  FIXTURES — (See  Sanitation)    67 

TELEPHONES    73 

TINTING  OF  WALLS  , 40 

TOILET   ROOMS    34 

U 

URINALS   69 

V 

VACUUM  CLEANING  APPARATUS  74 

W 

WALLS — Covering   36 

WALLS — Tinting     40 

WARDROBES —  (Cloak  Rooms)   30-42 

WINDOWS — Class  Rooms   28 

WINDOWS — Assembly  Hall  19 

WAINSCOT  z5 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ClAT 


RETURN     CIRCULATION  DEPARTMENT 

-        202  Main  Librar 


LOAN  PERIOD  1 
HOME  USE 

••  •• 

4 


migASSTAMPEDBELOW 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFOKNIA, 

A< 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


